THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Robert  Sonnenschein 


'e- 


PICTORIAL  HISTORY 


ANCIENT  PHARMACY; 


efc0e0  of  6arf£  (UXebicaf  practice. 


BY  HERMANN   PETERS. 


TRANSLATED   FROM   THE  GERMAN,  AND   REVISED,  WITH   NUMEROUS 
ADDITIONS, 

BY  DR.  WILLIAM   NETTER. 


CHICAGO: 

G.  P.  ENGELHARD  &  COMPANY. 
1880. 


COPYRIGHT,  1888,  BY  G.  P.  ENGELHARD  &  Co. 


BROWN,  PETTIBONK  &  Co.,  PRINTERS, 
CHICAGO. 


7- 


(preface. 


THE  original  work  of  Mr.  Hermann  Peters  was  a  pioneer  pathbreaker  in 
even  the  prolific  German  historical  field.  It  was  an  outgrowth  of  Mr.  Peters' 
studies  in  the  Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremburg,  and  was  pervaded  by  zeal 
for  the  reputation  of  the  old  city.  This  gave  the  style  of  the  work  a  quaint 
fascination,  which  greatly  increased  its  value  in  Germany,  where  intense 
interest  is  felt  concerning  Nuremburg,  where  so  much  of  Germany's  art,  science, 
mechanical  art  and  literature  were  fostered.  The  prominence  of  this  quaint 
Xuremburgian  patriotism  in  the  work,  while  not  without  its  charm,  was  a 
serious  limitation  and  defect  in  a  work  intended  for  an  English-speaking  public. 

The  revision  has  therefore  introduced  many  features  of  especial  interest 
to  English-speaking  pharmacists  and  physicians,  while  retaining  for  the  most 
part  the  style,  arrangement  and  illustrations  of  the  original. 

The  development  of  Pharmacy  as  a  specialty  of  Medicine  has  been  more 
carefully  discussed  in  the  light  of  researches  not  pursued  by  Mr.  Peters.  The 
original  chapter  on  "Pharmacy  in  the  Middle  Ages"  has  been  rewritten  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  researches  of  Gordon,  Baas,  Hallam  and  Meryon.  The 
chapter  on  "Ancient  Pharmacopoeias  "  and  that  on  the  "  Development  and 
Decline  of  Alchemy"  have  been  considerably  amplified,  the  former  being 
supplemented  by  the  results  of  the  researches  of  Dr.  Charles  Rice,  of  New 
York,  and  other  authorities. 

The  additions  on  the  subject  of  American  pharmacy  are  by  Dr.  James  G. 
Kiernan,  to  whom  the  editor  is  indebted  for  much  assistance  in  all  original 
portions  of  the  work.  W.  N. 


3ffu0f  raftone. 


PAGE. 

FRONTISPIECE,  FROM  COPPER- PLATE  BY  G.  KELLER,  1605 i 

MEDICINE  IN  SYMBOLISM.     COPPER-PRINT,  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 3 

Isis 6 

AESCULAPIUS  AND  HYGIEIA 8 

AESCULAPIUS 9 

COSMAS  AND  DAMIANUS 12 

DRUGSTORE.   FROM(H)<DRTUSSANITATIS.   HANNSEN  SCHOENSPERGER, 

AUGSBURG,  1486 ,, 13 

HIPPOCRATES 18 

/ESCLEPIADES 19 

GALEN 20 

MEMORIAL  OF  APOTHECARIES'  GUILD  AT  ULM,  1380 26 

DRUG-STORE.     WOODCUT  FROM  THE  "ARS  MEMORATIVA,"  OF  ANTON 

SORG,   I470 27 

DRUGSTORE.    WOODCUT  FROM  "THE  ART  OF  DISTILLING,"  1505,  BY 

J.  GRUNINGER 28 

AN  ASSORTMENT  OF  DRUG-CONTAINERS.    FROM(H)ORTUSSANITATIS.  .  .29,  30 

A  DEALER  IN  RED  EARTH.     WOODCUT  (ORTUS  SANITATIS) 31 

LABORATORY.     FROM  THE  "ART  OF  DISTILLING  " 32 

FRONTISPIECE.     P.  A.  MATTHIOLI,  1586 33 

DRUG  STORE  OF  1536 35 

DRUG-STORE  OF  1548 36 

DRUG-STORE  OF  1568 37 

APOTHECARY  CYRIACUS  SCHNAUS,  1565 42 

FRONTISPIECE,  1652 45 

PORTRAIT  OF  THEOPHR.  PARACELSUS 48 

PARACELSUS 50 

LABORATORY,  1663 51 

DRUG-STORE,  1663 53 

DRUGGIST  BASILIUS  BESLER  54 

JOURNEYMAN'S  CERTIFICATE,  1743 56 

WILLIAM  HARVEY 61 

FRONTISPIECE 63 

DRUGGIST  JOH.  CHI.  SOMMERHOFF 66 

THE  "COURT  PHARMACY"  AT  RASTATT  IN  1700 68 

"  STAR  PHARMACY  "  AT  NUREMBURG  IN  1710 69 

DRUG  STORE  AT  KLATTAU  IN  1733.     FROM  A  PHOTOGRAPH 70 

LABORATORY  OF  THE  COURT  PHARMACY  AT  KOENIGSBERG  IN  1778 72 

(vii) 


Illustrations. 


PACK. 

ILLUSTRATION  FROM  KEITH'S  "  VIRGINIA,"  1738 76 

DISTILLING  IN  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 77 

DISTILLING  APPARATUS  AND  UTENSILS  IN  EARLY  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY.  81 

ClRCULATORIES 82 

RETORTS  AND  ALEMBICS 83 

ANCIENT  DISTILLATION 84 

ALEMBICS 86 

RETORTS , 87 

DISTILLING  APPARATUS 88 

IMPROVED  DISTILLING  APPARATUS 89 

DISTILLING  APPARATUS,  1560 90 

DISTILLING  APPARATUS,  1567 91 

FRENCH  APPARATUS,  1560 92 

DRY  DISTILLING 93 

ALCHEMIST'S  FIREPLACE „ 95 

FIRE-KETTLE  AND  DISTILLERY  HEARTH 98 

COPPEL  HEARTH 99 

DISTILLING  SCENE 100 

DISTILLING  STOVES 101 

ALTHANOR  DISTILLING  STOVE..- 102 

WIND  DISTILLING  STOVE 103 

DISTILLING  APPARATUS 104 

MIDDLE  AGE  STOVE 105 

REVERBERATORY  FURNACE 106 

FRONTISPIECE.    FROM  THE  DISPENSATORY  OF  VAL.  CORDUS,  1666 109 

PUBLIC  DISPLAY  OF  THERIAC 117 

DEMONS  OF  DISEASE 125 

LOVE-CHARMS 137 

MALE  AND  FEMALE  MANDRAKE 141 

MANDRAKE 142 

DIGGING  MANDRAKE 143 

FRONTISPIECE 157 

"THE  WIND  CARRIED  HIM  IN  ITS  BOWELS" 168 

"THE  EARTH  NOURISHED  HIM." 169 

ALCHEMICAL  Music 170 

UNION  OF  "MERCURY"  AND  "  SULPHUR." 17! 

UNION  OF  THE  FATHER  AND  MOTHER  OF  THE  HERMAPHRODITE  STONE.  173 

ALCHEMICAL  COIN 178 


Contents. 


CHAPTER  I. 

TUTELAR  GODS  AND   PATRON    SAINTS   OF   PHARMACY. 

PAGE. 
Common  Origin  of  Pharmacy  and  Medicine — Fetichism  and  Disease — 

Assyrian  Pharmacy 5 

Greek  Myth  of  Prometheus — Pandora's  Box — Isis 6 

yEsculapius — Podalirius — Machaon — Hygeia 7 

yEsculapius  and  Hygeia 8 

Prometheus,  yEsculapius  and  the  Priesthood — Hospital  Temples  in  Greece  9 

Serpent  Symbolism  in  Pharmacy — Cosmas  and  Damian 10 

Miracles  of  Surgery — Sign  of  the  Moor 1 1 

Pharmacy,  Medicine  and  Surgery  in  Symbolism 12 

CHAPTER  II. 

PHARMACY    IN    THE   MIDDLE   AGES. 

Egyptian  Pharmacy  in  the  Reign  of  Sent  (3500  B.  C.) — Pharmacy  Among 
the  Assyrians — Pharmacy  Among  the  Hebrews  and  Chinese — Ching 
Nong 15 

Chinese  Pharmacy 16 

Sanscrit   Pharmacy — State    Poisons— Philters — Theocritus— Pharmacy  in 

the  Temples  of  ^Lsculapius — Hippocrates 17 

Grseco-Egyptian  Pharmacy — Erasistratos  —  Serapion  —  Mantias,  Herak- 

leides  and  Dioscorides 18 

Mithridates — Roman  Pharmacy — /Esclepiades 19 

Themiston — Menecrates — Dioscorides — Galen 20 

Galen — Ruffus — Circulation  of   the  Blood— Nemesius — "  Hiera  picra  "  - 

Triallianus — Chinese   Rhubarb — Homreopathy 21 

Arabian  Pharmacy — Alkekendi — Avicenna — Averroes— School  of  Salerno 
— Pharmacy  in  the  Eleventh  Century — Arctuarius — Arabian  Phar- 
macy Laws — Pharmacy  Laws  of  Frederic  II  (A.  D.  1233) 22 

"  Confectionarii "  and  "  Stationarii  " — Pharmacy  in   the  Middle  Ages — 

Spanish  Pharmacy — German  Pharmacy  in  the  Thirteenth  Century. .  .        23 

German   Pharmacy   Laws— Grocers,    Spicers   and    Pharmacists — English 

Pharmacy  in  the  Fourteenth  Century — Chaucer  on  Pharmacy 24 

Belgian  Pharmacy  in  the  Thirteenth  Century — The  First  English  Drug- 
store— The  First  French  Drug-store — A  Fourteenth  Century  German 
Apothecaress 25 

(i.x) 


Contents. 


PAGE. 

A  Fifteenth  Century  Drug- Store — The  Mortar  in  Fifteenth  Century  Phar- 
macy— "Ortus  Sanitatis" 27 

Coats  of  Arms  for  Labek 29 

Peripatetic  Druggists 3 l 

Pharmacal  Laboratory  of  the  Middle  Ages 32 

CHAPTER  III. 

PHARMACY   IN   THE   SIXTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Sixteenth  Century  Drug-Store  Labels 35 

Directions  for  Keeping  Drugs — Shakespere's   Apothecary — The  Use  of 

Stuffed  Crocodiles 36 

Sugar  in  Sixteenth  Century  Pharmacy 37 

Poly-Pharmacy  in  the  Sixteenth  Century — English  Pharmacy  in  the  Six- 
teenth   Century  —  Bulley n  —  Medico- Pharmacal    Conflicts  —  French 

Pharmacy  in  the  Sixteenth  Century 38 

Belgian,  German,  Dutch  and  Italian  Pharmacy  in  the  Sixteenth  Century — 

Adulteration  Laws 39 

Drug  Bills  in  the  Sixteenth  Century 4° 

Defense  of  Sixteenth  Century  Pharmacists  against  Charges  by  Physicians.  41 

Cyriac  Schnaus — War  Pharmacy — Separation  of  Spicers  from  Pharmacists.  43 

CHAPTER  IV. 

PHARMACY    IN    THE    SEVENTEENTH    CENTURY. 

American  Drugs  in  the  Seventeenth  Century 47 

Chemical  Remedies  —Paracelsus 48 

Avicenna,  the  Prince  of  Physicians '. 49 

Origin  of  the  Homoeopathic  School 50 

Chemical  Medicine — Nicholas  Lemery — Seventeenth  Century  Pharmacal 

Laboratory 51 

Human  Skull  as  a  Remedy — Joseph  Bechler — Seventeenth  Century  Apoth- 
ecary Shops — Seventeenth  Century  Botany — Csesalpinus 52 

"Hortus  Eystettensis  " — Basil  Besler 53 

Botanical  Researches  in  Nuremburg — Pharmaco-Medical  Banquets 55 

Pharmacist's  Certificate,  1743 56 

Seventeenth  Century    Pharmacal   Education — Journeyman   Pharmacist's 

Certificate — Social  Status  of  the  German  Pharmacist 57 

Seventeenth  Century  Satirists  and  Pharmacy 58 

Zacchias  and  Self  Generated  Poisons— Italian  Pharmacy— The  Apotheca- 
ries Company  in  England 60 

Social  Status  of  the  English  Apothecary — William  Harvey 61 

Seventeenth  Century  Pharmacy  in  America— Dr.  Edward  Heldon— Rev. 
Jacob  Green — Giles   Firmin — William   Davies — American  Pharmacy 

Laws — Salmon's  Herbal  . .  62 


Contents. 


CHAPTER  V. 

PHARMACY   IN   THE   EIGHTEENTH   CENTURY. 

Early  English  Pharmacy  Laws  — Grocers  and  Apothecaries  Company  — 

Medico-Pharmacal  Conflicts—"  Urinal  of  Physic  " 65 

John  Christopher  SommerhofF — "  Lexicon  Pharmaceutico-Chymicum  "  . .       67 

Eighteenth  Century  Drug-Stores 68,69 

Fluid  Containers — Porcelain  Substituted  for  Majolica  Ware 70 

Boettcher — Eighteenth  Century  Pharmacal  Laboratory 71 

Pharmaceutical  Conflicts  with  Distillers — Prescription  Percentages 72 

Eighteenth  Century  Pharmacal  Education — Trommsdorf — First  Pharmacal 

Journal — Pharmacal  Institute 73 

The  Pharmacist  Scientists  :  Hudson,  Ehrhart  and  Scheele — Dr.  Dover — 
Dover's  Powder — Thomas  Fowler — Fowler's  Solution — Dr.  Stur — 
Eighteenth  Century  Irish  Pharmacy — Metrology  in  Ireland — American 
Pharmacy  —  James  Tagree — Gov.  Hunter  —  The  Van  Burens — The 

"  Red  Drop  " 74 

John  Johnstone — American  Patent  Medicine— "  Tuscarora  Rice  " — New 
Jersey  Pharmacy  Law — Jonathan  Dickinson's  "  Materia  Medica" — 
Dr.  L.  Vanderveer — Scutellaria — Robert  Eastburn's  Receipt  Book — 
Schoepf  and  Barton's  "  Materia  Medica" — Dr.  Tilton's  Pharmaco- 
poeia—Duncan's "  Dispensatory  "  —  Lewis'  "Materia  Medica"  — 
American  Botany — Dr.  Cadwallader  Calden — Dr.  Benjamin  Rush. . .  .75 
Codliver  Oil 76 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DISTILLING    APPARATUS. 

Distilling  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans — Synesius — Rhazes  of  Bagdad 
—  Arabian   Distilling — Furno  of  Basel  —  Thaddaus   of  Florence  — 

Arnoldus  of  Villanova — Fifteenth  Century  Laws  Regulating  Distilling  79 

Brunschwyck's  Works  on  Distilling— Sixteenth  Century  Distilling 80 

Vials — Curcubites — Urinals . .  81 

Circulatories — Funnels , 82 

Retorts — Alembics 83 

Methods  of  Distillation 85 

Modified  Alembics 86 

Middle  Age  Retorts 87 

Improvements  in  Distilling — Basilius  Valentinus 88 

Metallic  Apparatus 90 

Ryff's  "  Distiller's  Book" 91 

French  Distilling  Apparatus 92 


Contents. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

EARLY  CHEMICO-PHARMACAL   STOVES   AND  FIRE-PLACES. 

PAGE. 

Alchemist's  Fire-Places 97 

Fire-Kettles— Distillery  Hearths 98 

"  Coppel ' '  Hearths 99 

Taberncemontanus'    "  Medicine  Book  " 100 

Distilling  Stove— Matthiolus'  "  Herb  Book" 101 

Althanor  Distilling  Stove 102 

"Wind"  Distilling  Stove 103 

Distilling  Apparatus 104 

Middle  Age  Stove 165 

Reverberatory  Furnace — Fuel  used  by  Alchemists 106 

Artificial  Hot  Springs 107 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

ANCIENT    PHARMACOPOEIAS. 

Ancient    "  Prayogamrita  " — Scribonius'    "  Compositiones    Medica  " — 

' '  Ibdal ' ' — Nicolaus'    "  Antidotarium  ' ' — Piedmont    Formulary ill 

Myrepsius'    "Antidotarium  " — "Antidotarium  Magnum  " — "  Pharmaco- 
poeia Lugdensis  " — Nuiemburg  Pharmacy  Law — "  Luminare  Majus  " 

— Joh.  Jac.  M.  de  Bosco 112 

Cordus  Dispensatory — Life  of  Cordus 113 

Cordus'  Preparations — Greek,  Roman  and  Arabian  Receipts 1 14 

Mithridat— Theriac 1 16 

Public  Display  of  Theriac 117 

Substitution — American  Drugs — Chemicals 118 

Animal  Remedies— Human  Products   119 

Sixteenth  Century  German,  Italian  and  Spanish  Pharmacopoeias — Seven- 
teenth Century  English  and  Spanish  Pharmacopoeias 120 

French,  Dutch,  Belgian  and  Danish  Pharmacopoeias — Medical  Cannibal- 
ism— Jalap — Tolu — Cinchona 121 

Swedish,  Prussian,  Spanish,  Swiss  and  Austrian  Pharmacopoeias 122 

Bohemian,  Persian,  American  and  Irish  Pharmacopoeias — Hog  Lice  Wine  123 

CHAPTER  IX. 

MEDICAL    SUPERSTITIONS. 

Fetichism  and  Medicine — Survival  of  Superstitions 127 

Demon  Possession — Nineteenth  Century  Superstitions — f<  Water  to  Drive 

Out  Demons" — "Amulets  against  the  Plague  ''    128 

««Amulets  against  Nosebleed  "—Remedy  for  Epilepsy 129 

•"  Tablettes  against  Disease  " — Superstitions  about  Precious  Stones 130 


Contents. 


PAGE. 
Incantations  against  Disease — Charms  against  Fever — Amulets  for  Women 

•  in  Confinement 131 

Horoscopes— Similarities  in  Shape  and  Disease 132 

Witchcraft  Remedies — "  Sympathetic  Egg." 133 

Tree  Charms — Weapon  Salve  of  Paracelsus 134 

Astrology  and  Disease — Memory  Remedies 135 

Persistence  of  Supeustition 136 

CHAPTER  X. 

PHARMACY    AND    THE    ART    OF    LOVE. 

Early  Philters — Indian  Hemp 139 

Mandrake N 140 

Use  of  the  Mandrake  in  Early  Jewish  Times 141 

Risks  of  Mandrake  Gathering  143 

Other  Vegetable  Philters  of  the  Classical  Era — Theocritus  and  Lucian  on 

Philters 144 

Incantation  of  Simaetha 145 

Aphrodisiacs— Satyrion — Androgonos — Thelygonos 147 

Ebers'  Philter—"  Hekt  "— Love  Charms 148 

Horace  on  Philters 149 

Hippomane — Petronius  on  Satyrion 150 

Lucretius — Philters  in  the  Middle  Ages — Vervain 151 

A  Labor  of  Love 152 

Diasatirion .  • 1 53 

Love  Powders — Love  Charms 154 

CHAPTER  XI. 

ALCHEMY. 

Modern  Science  and  Alchemy 159 

Origin  of  Alchemy 160 

Tabula  Smaragdina — Twelfth  Century  Alchemy — Albertus  Magnus 161 

Roger  Bacon — Raymond  Lully — Pope  John  XXII — Canon  Ripley — "  Six 

Chemical  Portals" '. 162 

Chaucer  on  Alchemy 163 

Norton — Alchemy  in  Italy  and  England 164 

Basil  Valentine  —  Rudolph  II  —  Luther  on  Alchemy  —  Development  of 

Chemistry  from  Alchemy 165 

Leibnitz — Newton — British  Royal  Society — Ashmole — The  "Red  Earth" 

— "  Theatrum  Chemicum  Britannicum  " 166 

Majero's  Atalanta 167 

Alchemy  in  Music  and  Art 168 

Alchemic  Theories 1 70 

Sulphur  and  its  Ancient  Names 171 

^Enigma  Regis — Quinta  Essentia 1 72 


Contents. 


PAGE. 

Alchemical  Symbols 175 

Alchemy  in  the  Eighteenth  Century 176 

Krohnemann  and  Alchemical  Impostors 177 

Alchemistic  Gold  Coins 1 78 

Imprisonment  of  Krohnemann — "Usufur,"  a  Wonderful  Gold-powder — 

Duke  Cosmos  II  victimized 179 

Execution  of  Count  Cajetan — Failure  of  the  old  Fire  Philosophers 180 

Epitaph  of  Alchemists— Peter  Woulfe 181 

Woulfe's  Peculiarities — Deceit  of  Prince  Rohan  in.lSSo  by  the  American 

Alchemist  Wise — An  American  Alchemist 182 

Table  of  Alchemistic  Symbols 183 


£ufefar  <£o$e  anb  (patron  Ji&inf  0  of  (Jttebicme  anb  (J^armacp. 


Fig.     2. 

MEDICINE,  PHARMACY  AND  SURGERY. 
(An  allegorical  representation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century). 


(3) 


I,  Apollo,  the  science  of  all  herbs  have  conceived  ; 

To  me  are  their  virtues  and  powers  revealed. 
Thus  "  Master  of  Art"  by  me  was  received. 

A  title  mine  own  by  eternity  sealed. 

— HlERONYMCS   BOCK. 

(Book  of  Herbs,  1551.) 


U) 


HARMACY  and  medicine  in  most  countries  had 
a  common  origin  in  the  fetichtic  philosophy  of  the 
savage,  which  recognized  a  "soul"  in  even  inani- 
mate objects.  Disease  was  the  "soul"  of  one 
object  attacking  another,  and  to  drive  this  malign 
influence  off,  noises,  smells,  and  various  contortions  were  em- 
ployed, such  as  are  still  used  by  the  "medicine  men"  of  the 
savages  of  to-day.  The  fact  was  empirically  ascertained  that 
herbs*  had  beneficent  properties  which  were  at  first  explained  on 
the  fetichtic  philosophy.  On  this  double  basis  of  empiricism 
and  a  fanciful  philosophy  developed  pharmacy,  medicine,  and 
most  religions. 

For  a  long  period  the  religious  incantations  formed  the  chief 
part  in  the  treatment  of  disease.  The  chanter  of  litanies  occu- 
pied a  higher  place  than  the  physician  who  applied  the  remedies. 
This  relationship  was  later  removed.  The  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions in  Assyria  contain  a  complete  history  of  this  evolution. 
The  earlier  inscriptions  give  a  prominent  place  to  charms  and 
incantations  in  medicine.  The  later  (B.  C.  1640)  contain 
reference  to  classified  diseases,  their  pathology,  diagnosis  and 
treatment,  including  directions  for  the  preparation  of  medicine. 
One  inscription,  for  example,  directs  the  preparation  of  a  pre- 
scription for  a  "  diseased  gall  bladder  which  devours  the  top  of 
a  man's  heart ;  cypress  extract,  goat's  milk,  palm  wine,  barley, 
ox  and  bear  flesh,  and  the  wine  of  the  cellarer,"!  are  directed  to 


*  Schultze,  History  of  Fetichism. 

t  Sayce,  "Translations  of  the  Cuneiform  Inscriptions.' 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


be  made  into  a  decoction  by  a  medical  specialist  clearly  prac- 
ticing pharmacy. 

The  researches  of  Ebers  leave  little  doubt  that  pharmacy 
was  practiced  by  one  branch  of  the  priesthood  of  Isis,  to  whom 
prescriptions  were  sent  by  the  physician-priest, 
who,  accompanied  by  a  chanter  of  litanies  or 
charms,  attended  the  sick. 

Some  of  the  Egyptian  inscriptions  indicate 
that  processes  akin  to  distilling  were  practiced.* 
How  far  these  influenced  the  later  discoveries 
of  the  Arabian  chemists  is  an  open  question, 
since  it  is  well  known  that  the  alleged  de- 
struction of  the  Alexandrian  library  is  a 
myth. 

The  Aryan f  races  had  similar  usages  to 
the  Assyrians  in  regard  to  the  commingling  of 
religion,  pharmacy,  and  medicine.  Chinese 
pharmacy  and  pathology  is  a  corrupted  form 
of  the  earlier  Aryan  views.  One  Aryan  expression  of  the 
indignation  of  the  priests  at  the  increasing  tendency  to  the 
separation  of  medicine  and  science  from  religion  was  to  be 
found  in  the  Greek  myth  of  Prometheus.  When  Prometheus, 
an  early  friend  of  man,  had  wrenched  fire  from  the  hands  of 
Zeus,  and  presented  it  to  the  poor  mortals,  the  wrath  of  the 
king  of  the  gods  knew  no  bounds,  and  he  determined  upon 
being  revenged.  Pursuant  to  this  he  ordered  Hephsestos  to 
model  a  woman,  and  induced  all  the  immortal  gods  to  adorn 
her  with  the  costliest  gifts  at  their  command.  The  result  was 
a  being  of  resplendent  and  fascinating  loveliness,  named  Pan- 
dora. To  Hermes  fell  the  lot  of  conducting  her  to  the 
earth  and  into  the  presence  of  Epimetheus.  Although  fore- 
warned by  his  brother  Prometheus,  not  to  accept  presents 
from  Zeus,  Epimetheus  nevertheless  could  not  withstand  the 
beauty  and  attractiveness  of  Pandora,  giving  her  hospitable 
shelter  and  accepting  from  her  a  box  as  a  gift  from  the  gods. 
Hardly  had  he  lifted  the  lid  when  there  poured  forth  from  the 
box  waitings  and  lament,  hunger  and  want,  distress,  sickness  and 

*  Zeitschrift  fur  Egyptologie,  1865. 
t  History  of  Medicine,  by  Gordon. 


Tutelar  Gods  and  Patron  Saints. 


suffering  immeasurable.  Becoming  terrified  and  quickly  attempt- 
ing to  close  the  box,  he  saw  that  Hope,  which  was  the  last  to 
leave  the  box,  had  been  caught  by  the  lid,  and  thus  the  only 
consoler  of  man  ever  afterward  presented  itself  to  him  in  a  sadly 
distorted  condition.  Ever  since  this  occurrence  wasting  fevers 
haunt  the  land,  and  pale  and  hollow-eyed  disease  pursues  man 
wherever  he  goes.  But  Prometheus,  by  order  of  Zeus,  was 
chained  to  the  most  desolate  rock  in  the  Caucasus. 

The  myth  further  tells  us  that  a  certain  god  took  pity  on 
suffering  man,  and,  in  a  measure  at  least,  to  console  and  help 
him,  taught  him  the  art  of  healing.  This  god  was  ^Esculapius. 
According  to  the  legend,  he  was  the  son  of  Hermes  and  Caronis, 
was  born  in  the  neighborhood  of  Epidaurus,  and  was  there  left 
to  his  fate  at  the  foot  of  a  mountain.  A  goat  there  nourished 
him,'  and  a  shepherd  dog  protected  and  watched  over  him. 
Later  on  Hermes  intrusted  his  education  to  the  Centaur  Chiron, 
who  mainly  instructed  him  in  the  art  of  healing.  ^Esculapius 
was  an  apt  scholar,  and  very  soon  became  such  a  master  in  the 
art  that  he  not  only  healed  the  sick  and  wounded,  but  even 
brought  the  dead  to  life  again.  This  restoration  of  the  dead 
excited  the  wrath  of  Pluto,  the  god  of  Hades,  who  complained 
to  Zeus,  and  the  latter  killed  the  culprit  with  a  thunderbolt  for 
daring  to  interfere  with  the  natural  limits  of  human  life. 

Another  later  legend  assigns  as  the  real  cause  of  his  sudden  and 
ignoble  taking  off,  that  he  had,  contrary  to  the  will  of  the  gods, 
taught  the  art  of  healing  to  man.  The  grateful  mortals  did  not 
forget  their  benefactor,  and  built  temples  in  honor  of  .^Esculapius, 
in  which  priests,  of  whom  his  two  sons,  Podalirius  and  Machaon, 
were  the  first  in  order,  further  practiced  and  developed  the  art 
of  healing.  ^Esculapius  is  pictured  as  a  most  worthy  and  wise- 
looking,  long-bearded  man,  bearing  in  his  hand  a  staff  around 
which  coiled  a  snake.  The  preparing  of  the  medicine  ordered 
was  left  to  Hygeia,  the  goddess  of  healing,  who  was  the  daughter, 
or.  according  to  others,  the  wife  of  ^Esculapius. 

Thus  modern  healers,  whose  path  in  life  is  not  always 
strewn  with  roses,  and  whose  efforts  in  behalf  of  suffering  man 
are  frequently  no  more  appreciated  than  were  those  of  y£scu- 
lapius  of  old  by  the  gods,  may  look  to  this  patron  saint  for  con- 
solation, and  furthermore  take  pride  in  the  charming  Hygeia, 


8 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


who  is  portrayed  as  a  youthful  and  beautiful  woman,  clad  in  a 
long  flowing  robe,  in  the  act  of  feeding  a  serpent  from  a  shell. 

In  the  medical  works  of  the  Romans,  Greeks,  and  those  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  these  gods  of  healing  are  frequently  referred 


Fig.  4. 

AESCULAPIUS  AND  HYGEIA. 
(From  a.  plate  of  the  Eighteenth  Century). 

to.  Figure  4  represents  these  two  gods.  It  is  a  reproduction 
from  a  copper-plate  executed  by  J.  P.  Funk,  of  Nuremburg,  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  picture  bearing  the  inscription, 
"Bibliotheca  Wagneriana,"  served  as  a  property  mark  in  a 


Ttitelar  Gods  and  Patron  Saints. 


"  Fauna  suecica  Carol.  Linnsei,"  still  preserved  in  the  Germanic 
museum.  Whether  or  not  the  former  owner  of  the  book  is  iden- 
tical with  his  namesake,  the  noted  Famulus  in  Goethe's  Faust, 
we  must  leave  undecided.  But  the  portrayal  of  nature  between 


the  figures  of  ^Esculapius  and  Hygeia  at  least  vividly  calls  to 
mind  these  words  of  Faust,  rendered  by  Bayard  Taylor  : 

"  How  grand  a  show  !  but  ah  !   a  show  alone. 
Thou  boundless  nature,  how  make  thee  my  own  ? 
Where  you,  ye  breasts  ?     Founts  of  all  Being,  shining, 

Whereon  hang  Heaven's  and  Earth's  desire, 

Whereto  our  withered  hearts  aspire, — 
Ye  flow,  ye  feed  ;  and  am  I  vainly  pining  ?" 

Although  in  the  original  myth  Prometheus  and  ^Esculapius 
appear  as  enemies  to  the  priesthood,  who  believed  in  the  fetichtic 
doctrine  of  the  origin  of  disease,  the  worship  of  the  latter  as  a 
subsidiary  god  soon  became  fashionable,  while  the  observations 
of  Hippocrates  and  Galen,  and  the  researches  of  the  Athens 
Archaeological  Society*  show  that  the  temples  of  ^sculapius  and 

*  Kumanudes,  Athenaion;  Corpus  Inscriptionum  Atticarum. 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Hygiea  were  in  reality  hospitals  attended  by  skilled  physicians. 
The  cure  or  improvement  of  the  patient  was  ascribed  to  the 
power  of  the  god  or  goddess  invoked  by  the  worship  or  offerings 
of  the  patient.  Treatment  was  often  indicated  by  the  god,  in 
a  vision,  to  the  physician.  Hippocrates,  whose  family  had  been 
priests  of  ^Escupalius  at  Cos,  directs  physicians  to  pay  particular 
attention  to  the  dreams  of  the  patient  and  himself. 

Fetichism  rapidly  passed  into  pure  symbolism,  and  the  prin- 
ciple of  life  and  health  was  early  represented  as  a  serpent,  whose 
graceful,  stealthy  motion  had  early  excited  curiosity.  In  many 
of  the  Egyptian  incantations  for  health  this  serpent  worship 
played  a  part.  On  one  notable  occasion  Moses  and  the  Hebrews 
are  found  returning  to  this  worship.  The  symbol  early  and 
naturally  became  a  medical  one,  and  associated  with  ^Esculapius 
and  Hygiea.*  Around  the  staff  of  yEsculapius  a  serpent  winds, 
and  the  assumption  of  this  staff  by  an  ordained  priest  was  cele- 
brated by  an  annual  festival.f 

When  the  intellectual  revolution  produced  by  the  teachings 
of  Christ  swept  over  the  world  the  old  gods  and  goddesses  were 
replaced  by  Christian  saints.  In  Greece,  in  the  places  formerly 
sacred  to  Hygeia,  the  Virgin  is  invoked  to  cure  disease. £  In 
Western  Europe  the  holy  martyrs,  Cosmas  and  Damian,  took 
the  place  of  ^Esculapius  in  popular  worship,  and  their  portraits 
were  henceforth  frequently  placed  on  the  title  pages  of  medical 
works.  The  two  saints,  who  were  brothers,  lived  in  the  fourth 
century.  Deeply  moved  by  the  Christian  religion,  they  were 
actuated  by  the  noblest  motives,  and  practiced  the  art  of  healing 
with  the  utmost  self-sacrifice.  When  the  Diocletian  persecution 
of  Christians  was  inaugurated,  they  were  arrested  by  order  of 
the  city's  mayor,  Lysias,  and  condemned  to  death.  The  legend 
says  that  during  their  execution  and  shortly  thereafter,  a  num- 
ber of  miracles  took  place.  In  a  book  entitled  "The  Holy 
Lives,"  printed  by  Martin  Hupfuf,  in  the  free  and  imperial  city 
of  Strassburg  in  1513,  it  is  related  that  when  the  saints  had 
been  thrown  into  the  water  with  the  purpose  of  drowning  them, 
an  angel  descended,  and,  freeing  their  bounden  limbs,  enabled 
them  to  gain  the  shore.  Lysias  then  ordered  them  to  be  burned, 

»  Schultzc,  History  of  Fetichism. 

t  Littre,  Vol.  IV. 

J  Merriam.     Trans.  N.  V.  Academy  of  Medicine,  1886. 


Tutelar  Gods  and  Patron  Saints. 


but  the  fire  attacked  the  heathen  and  many  of  them  perished. 
They  were  then  fastened  to  a  cross,  and  Lysias  ordered  them  to 
be  stoned  to  death  and  pierced  by  arrows  ;  but  in  each  instance 
these  missiles  proved  to  be  boomerangs  in  the  hands  of  the 
would-be  slayers.  Becoming  very  much  enraged  at  these  futile 
attempts,  he  had  them  beheaded,  whereupon  their  souls  took 
flight  heavenward.  Their  bodies  were  taken  to  Asyria  and  pre- 
served in  a  chapel.  Pope  Felix  procured  some  of  their  relics, 
which  he  placed  in  a  church  built  in  honor  of  the  two  saints. 

For  centuries  physicians  and  patients  journeyed  to  the  shrine 
of  the  saintly  patrons  of  medicine,  and  many  patients  were 
reported  to  have  been  healed.  One  instance  of  miraculous 
healing  should  here  be  recorded.  A  man  with  a  diseased  leg 
had  fervently  implored  them  to  come  to  his  relief  in  his  great 
suffering,  and  his  faith  in  the  supernatural  powers  ascribed  to 
them  was  soon  to  be  rewarded.  One  night  he  dreamed  that  they 
were  in  his  presence,  and  were  holding  counsel  over  his  stricken 
member.  They  concluded  to  replace  it  by  a  sound  limb  taken 
from  a  Moor  who  had  but  recently  died.  When  he  awoke  the 
new  member  was  in  place,  and  at  once  served  the  purpose  of  a 
useful  limb,  causing  amazement  among  the  populace,  and  serving 
to  confirm  their  belief  in  the  superhuman  powers  of  the  saints. 

To  the  fact  that  the  limb  of  a  Moor  had  served  to  perform 
this  miracle,  as  well  as  to  the  profound  impression  the  occurrence 
left  upon  the  minds  of  men,  is  probably  due  the  predilection  that 
so  many  druggists  of  the  Middle  Ages  displayed  toward  the  sign 
of  the  Moor,  which  was  by  them  so  frequently  chosen  as  a  badge 
or  emblem,  to  which  peculiarity,  even  at  the  present  day,  the 
many  "Apotheken  zum  Mohren  "  in  Central  Europe  bear  witness. 
In  many  parts  of  Europe  the  2;th  day  of  September,  the  day  of 
martyrdom  of  these  Catholic  Christian  saints,  was  celebrated  in 
a  pompous  manner.  The  Vienna  Medical  Society  possesses  a 
copy  of  an  invitation,  in  Latin,  of  the  year  1700,  in  which  physi- 
cians, licentiates,  baccalaureates,  students,  druggists  and  surgeons 
are  invited  to  take  part  in  a  grand  celebration  of  the  Cosmas 
and  Damian  anniversary  in  the  Stephans  church  at  Vienna. 

Very  likely  the  pictures  of  the  saints  were  on  such  occasions 
multiplied  and  distributed  among  the  populace,  as  is  done  at  the 
present  time  when  a  nation  honors  its  heroes.  The  Vienna 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Medical  Society  also  possesses  t\vo  copper-plates  that  evidently 
served  this  purpose.  Figure  6  is  reproduced  from  one  of  these 
plates. 

Figure  2,  which  introduces  this  chapter,  represents  the  art  of 
healing,  with  its  sub-divisions,  Medicine,  Pharmacy  and  Surgery, 


I  5  S  COSHASET  DAMIANVS  AMOVERS 


Fig.  6. 
COSMAS  AND  DAMIANUS. 

is  from  a  copper-plate  by  an  unknown  master  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  In  the  background  a  drug  store  stands  revealed  by  the 
peculiar  bottles  and  containers  displayed  in  the  windows,  and  a 
druggist  appears  at  the  door  of  his  shop  in  plain  garb,  humbly 
accepting  a  prescription  from  the  hands  of  the  physician.  Phar- 
macy is  further  represented  by  a  mortar  and  distilling  apparatus, 
as  well  as  by  numerous  roots  and  herbs  promiscuously  distributed 
in  the  foreground. 


n 


Fig.  7. 
(From  a  book  cf  1486). 


Noting  his  penury  to  myself  I  said  : 
And  if  a  man  did  need  a  poisdn  now, 
Whose  sale  is  present  death  in  Mantua, 
Here  lives  a  caitiff  wretch  would  sell  it  him. 


— ROMEO  AND  JULIET, 


£t»o. 


JJfinrmacy   tit  the 


a.0es. 


JHARMACY  early  attained  a  relatively  high  develop- 
ment among  the  Egyptians.  A  papyrus  of  the 
reign  of  Sent  (3300  years  B.  C.)  gives  directions  as 
to  the  preparation  of  prescriptions.  These  were 
given  accompanied  by  incantations.  By  1600  B.  C. 
medicine  and  pharmacy  were  as  far  advanced  among  the  Egypt- 
ians as  at  the  time  of  Galen  Claudius  (200  A.  D.)  In  the  Ebers 
papyri  (1600  B.  C.)  is  a  formulary  containing  prescriptions  of 
famous  physicians.  Among  these  are  several  of  a  noted  Assyrian 
ophthalmologist  living  near  Mt.  Lebanon.  Draughts,  blisters, 
powders,  ointments,  and  clysters  are  the  chief  preparations  men- 
tioned. Mineral  and  vegetable  drugs  are  used.  That  the  "  art  of 
the  apothecary,"  however,  already  existed  among  Assyrians, 
is  shown  by  these  prescriptions,  as  well  as  the  inscriptions  in 
cuneiform  letters*  which  give  formulae  for  various  diseases. 

The  Hebrews,  from  their  association  with  the  Egyptians  and 
the  Assyrians,  imbibed  a  taste  for  pharmacal  and  medical 
studies,  and  the  "  art  of  the  apothecary"  is  spoken  of  very  early 
in  Old  Testament  history.  This  bias  the  Hebrews  never  lost. 
They  had  a  medical  school  of  their  own  at  Sora  as  late  as 
200  A.  D. 

The  influence  of  the  Cushito-Aryan  civilization,  which  showed 
itself  in  the  wisdom  of  the  Assyrians,  left  an  impress  on  Central 
Asia  evident  in  the  early  development  of  pharmacy  and  medicine 
among  the  Chinese,  for  Ching  Nong,  a  contemporary  of  Menes  I, 
of  Egypt,  was  learned  in  pharmacy.  He  studied  botany  and  made 

»  Sayce.  (15) 


1  6  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

decoctions  and  extracts.  The  Chinese  drug-stores  of  to-day  give 
an  idea  of  pharmacy  as  practiced  for  centuries  among  these 
people. 

Nearly  all  of  the  medicines,  with  a  few  important  exceptions, 
consist  of  nuts,  berries,  roots,  barks,  and  herbs.'  The  subjoined 
list,  furnished  by  a  Chinese  physician  in  Philadelphia,  gives  some 
idea  of  the  substances  actually  employed  in  practice  : 


Ching  fong  tong.     The  root  of  a  plant. 
Ho  Shau  U.     Root  of  Aconitum  Japonicum. 
$f  $  -y      Tai  tong  kwai.     Root  of  Aralia  edulis. 

Hung  kwo  ki.     Fruit  of  wild  Berberis  Lycium. 
Pak'ki.     A  kind  of  lung  wort. 
H\  1£     Ch'iin  kung.     "  Nodular  masses,  consisting  appar- 
ently of  the  root-stock  of  some  umbelliferous  plant  allied  to 
angelica." 

#  $     Kom  ts'o.     Liquorice  root. 

ift  i>»     Wai  shan.     The  root  of  a  water  plant. 

Pak  shut.     The  root  of  Atractylodes  alba. 


The  herbs  and  barks  are  in  large  pieces,  and  the  tubers  and 
roots  usually  entire.  It  is  customary  to  cut  the  former  in  small 
pieces,  and  slice  the  latter  in  delicate  segments  before  placing 
them  in  the  drawers  and  boxes  for  sale.  A  large  cleaver  (yeuk 
ts'oi  k'ap),  mounted  with  a  hinge  upon  a  slightly  inclined  table. 
is  employed  to  chop  the  grasses  and  herbs  in  convenient  lengths, 
while  the  tubers  are  sliced  upon  an  instrument  resembling  a 
carpenter's  plane  (yeuk  p'b),  inserted  in  a  long  bench  upon  which 
the  operator  sits,  the  pieces  falling  through  upon  a  tray  placed 
beneath.  A  canoe-shaped  cast-iron  mortar  (yeuk  shiin)  is  em- 
ployed to  reduce  some  nuts  and  minerals  to  powder.  It  stands 
upon  four  legs,  and  a  heavy  iron  disc  is  rolled  backwards  and 
forwards  within  it  by  means  of  a  wooden  axle,  to  which  the 
operator  applies  his  feet,  while  his  hands  are  free  to  perform 
other  work. 

The  prescriptions  furnished  by  the  native  doctors,  which  are 
usually  written  upon  Chinese  letter  paper,  and  a  foot  in  length, 
contain  only  a  list  of  the  names  and  quantities  of  the  medicines 
required,  with  concise  directions  for  their  preparation,  no  date 


Pharmacy  in  the  Middle  Ages.  17 

or  signature  being  appended.  The  clerk  weighs  out  the  ingre- 
dients, and  places  them  separately  upon  a  large  sheet  of  paper, 
going  over  them  carefully  afterward  to  prevent  any  possible 
mistake.  A  hand  balance  (litang)  is  used,  consisting  of  a  deci- 
mally graduated,  ivory  rod,  from  one  end  of  which  a  brass  scale 
pan  is  suspended  by  silk  threads.  The  smaller  kind  weigh  from 
one  li  to  five  and  one-half  leung,  or  Chinese  ounces,  and  are 
remarkably  accurate.  Some  are  powdered  in  the  upright  iron 
mortar  (chung  horn),  and  others  in  the  porcelain  mortar  (hii  un); 
certain  roots  and  seeds  are  roasted  in  a  pan,  while  others  are 
steeped  for  a  few  moments  in  Chinese  rice  spirits.  The  package 
of  medicine  is  carried  home  to  be  boiled,  and  the  infusion  taken 
at  one  dose  by  the  patient.  Some  Chinese  prunes  (hak  tsb)  are 
usually  furnished,  to  be  eaten  at  the  same  time.  The  prescription,, 
of  which  no  record  is  kept,  is  returned  with  the  medicine. 

The  extensive  materia  medica  of  the  Aryans*  and  the 
Sanscrit  codt  of  ethics  show  that  the  apothecary's  art  was  in 
high  esteem.  The  doctrine  of  transmigration  of  souls,  as  it 
limited  the  field  of  surgery,  gave  increased  importance  to  phar- 
macology, botany  and  the  preparation  of  drugs.  The  Greeks, 
from  an  early  period,  like  most  Aryan  people,  had  a  tinge  of 
pharmacal  knowledge,  shown  by  the  instruction  given  by  the 
Centaurs  (symbols  of  foreign  influence)  to  the  various  gods  and 
heroes.  Pharmacy  among  the  Greeks  was  stimulated  by  the 
necessity  of  additions  to  the  incantations  of  the  priests.  The 
mixed  religious  and  medical  procedures  in  the  marvels  recorded 
in  the  temples  of  Hygiea  and  ^sculapius  indicate  this. 

An  additional  stimulus  was  given  by  the  use  of  a  poison  by 
the  state  for  public  executions,  and  the  necessity  the  fair  sex  felt 
of  adding  to  their  attractions.  A  poem.of  Theocritus  ("  Pharma- 
ceutica")  deals  chiefly  with  philters,  then  a  profitable  branch  of 
pharmacy,  which,  even  to  the  present  day,  survives  in  the  "love 
powders,"  so  largely  in  demand  in  certain  districts  of  our  larger 
cities. 

In  the  temples  of  ^Esculapius  the  art  of  medicine  became 
somewhat  systematized  ;  pharmacists  resided  within  the  walls, 
while  the  physicians  went  forth  among  the  people.  This  is 
obvious  from  many  of  the  facts  cited  by  Hippocrates  (B.  C.  460- 

*  Gordon,  History  of  Medicine. 


1 8  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

370),  who  gathered  up  many  of  the  observations  recorded  by  his 
predecessors.  He  was  the  seventh  of  seven  of  the  same  name, 
and  the  most  illustrious  of  a  long  line  of  medical  men.  Phar- 
macy and  medicine,  which  had  begun  to  diverge  under  the 
^Esclepiades,  became  united  in  his  person.  Hippocrates  carried 
his  drugs  with  him. 

Greek  and  Egyptian  medicine  and  pharmacy  commingled  at 
Alexandria,  where  every  science  of  the  period  was  stimulated  by 
the  Ptolemies  (323-30  B.  C.)  Among  the  great  pharmacists  and 


Fig.  8. 

HIPPOCRATES. 

physicians  of  this  period  were  :  Herophilos  (335  B.  C.),  who 
made  great  contributions  to  anatomy.  He  also  made  several 
contributions  to  pharmacology.  Serapion  (280  B.  C.)  and 
Mantias  (250  B.  C.)  wrote  formularies  giving  descriptions  of  drugs 
and  processes ;  Herakleides  added  much  to  the  pharmacology  of 
Hippocrates  ;  Appollonios,  of  Tyre,  and  Dioscorides,  of  Phakas, 
were  toxicologists,  pharmacologists  and  magicians  ;*  Erasistratos 
was  the  great  anatomist  of  the  period. 

By  the  empirical  school,  which  developed  under  the  teach- 
ings of  Herophilos  and  Erasistratos  (280  B.  C.),  pharmacology 
and  therapeutics  were  greatly  studied.  Through  the  experiments 
•on  human  beings  of  Mithridates  and  Attalos  III,  toxicology 

*  Baas,  "  Geschichte  der  Medicin." 


Pharmacy  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


received  an  impetus.  The  cosmetic  art  was  advanced  by  Cleo- 
patra, by  Berenice  and  Arsenoea,  who  dabbled  in  this  branch  of 
the  pharmacy  of  the  period.  Kleophantos  (138  B.  C.),  Nikan- 
dros  (136  B.  C.),  Kratenos  (70  B.  C.)  and  Heras  (30  B.  C.),  con- 
tributed much  to  pharmacology. 

The  early  Roman  writings  on  medicine  discuss  hygiene  and 
preventive  medicine.  Vegetius  (386  B.  C.)  wrote  a  work  on  the 
duties  of  army  surgeons,  which  pays  but  little  attention  to  phar- 
macy. His  directions,  where  not  surgical,  are  chiefly  dietetic 
and  hygienic. 


Fig.  9. 
JESCLEPIADES. 

About  187  B.  C.,  in  consequence  of  an  epidemic,  a  temple 
was  erected  to  ^Esculapius,  and  later  one  to  Hygiea.  This  intro- 
duced pharmacy  and  therapeutics  into  Rome.  About  100  B.  C., 
Arcagathus  left  Greece  for  Rome,  and  a  "  shop  and  surgery " 
were  purchased  for  him  by  the  people.  He  practiced  both 
medicine  and  pharmacy.  He  was  driven  out  on  account  of  his 
predilection  for  operations,  and  was  succeeded  in  popular  esteem 
by  ./Esclepiades,  who  had  studied  medicine  at  Alexandria,  then 
the  great  centre  of  Grseco-Egyptian  medicine.  He  practiced  an 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


expectant  treatment  and  hydropathy,  and  denounced  drugs  and 
venesection.  Themiston,  who  was  practically  his  pupil,  suc- 
ceeded him.  Medicine  soon  became  divided  up  into  sects  and 
specialties.  The  tendency  to  pharmacy  was  shown  in  the  exten- 
sive use  of  drugs  by  some  of  these  sects,  who  aco-  >ed  a  peculiar 
skill  in  dispensing.*  Menecrates  (i  A.  D.)  was  one  of  these.  He 
invented  diachylon  plaster,  and  used  it  for  much  the  same  pur- 
poses for  which  it  is  employed  to-day.  Archigenes,  who  was 
his  successor,  employed  opium  in  dysentery. 


Dioscorides,  of  Anazarba,  who  belonged  to  the  Graeco-Roman 
school  of  this  period,  was  a  great  pioneer  in  pharmacy.  He 
extended  the  knowledge  of  botany  and  pharmacology  in  a  work 
which  was  recognized  as  an  authority  on  the  subject  as  late  as 
the  seventeenth  century,  A.  D.  Dioscorides  used  powdered  elm- 
bark  in  skin  diseases,  and  polypodium  as  an  anthelmintic.  He 
described  four  hundred  plants.  His  followers  in  pharmacology 
were  Varro  (27  B.  C.)  and  Macersen.  Celsus  was  a  commentator 
rather  than  a  pharmacist  or  physician. 


Pharmacy  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


Galen,  the  great  reviver  of  medicine,  who  maintained  his 
supremacy  for  nearly  fourteen  hundred  years,  was  at  once  phar- 
macist, physician,  botanist  and  surgeon.  He  united  in  his  works 
the  various  schools.  He  is  on  record  as  keeping  a  drug  store  in 
Rome.  His  t1  "ones  as  to  disease  still  in  small  degree  dominate 
modern  pathology.  In  many  particulars  he  reproduced  the 
theories  of  the  Aryan  physicians,  and  that  school  of  Aryan  medi- 
cine which  prevailed  in  China.  He  was  the  first  to  secure  the 
aroma  of  plants  by  distillation.  To  the  list  of  plants  given  by 
Dioscorides  he  added  nearly  half  as.  many  more.  One  class  of 
remedies  described  by  him  were  called  "  Arteriacea,"  which 
acted  on  the  blood  vessels -in  a  similar  manner  to  the  "vaso- 
motor"  remedies  of  lo-a^.  . 

In  the  next  century  appear  three  great  names,  Ruffus,  who  dis- 
covered the  function  of  the  recurrent  laryngeal  nerve,  Aurelianus, 
and  Leonidas.  Isolation  of  contagious  diseases  was  proposed  by 
Aurelianus  and  Leonidas,  who  were  denounced  by  the  public  as 
brutes  for  so  doing.  The  next  two  centuries  were  periods  of 
decline.  Nemesius,  in  his  work  "  De  Natura  Hominis"  (300  A.D.), 
gives  a  theory  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  which,  imperfect 
though  it  be,  is  a  step  forward  in  the  direction  of  the  modern 
doctrine.  Oribasius,  in  the  fourth  century,  was  an  active  phar- 
macologist. ^Etius,  in  the  fifth  century,  first  made  use  of  the 
magnet  in  the  treatment  of  disease. 

Alexander  Trallianus,  in  the  sixth  century,  advised  that  age, 
sex,  and  constitution  be  considered  in  treatment.  He  used  col- 
chicum  in  the  treatment  of  gout,  iron  in  the  treatment  of  anaemia, 
rhubarb  in  "liver  weakness"  and  dysentery.  He  introduced  the 
mixture  called  "hiera  picra"  into  medicine  as  an  anthelmintic. 
He  distinguished  between  tape-worms,  round  worms,  and  thread 
worms.  In  the  sixth  century,  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  enunciated 
the  dogma  of  Homoeopathy,  which  had  been  propounded  in 
China  several  centuries  before.*  Paulus  ^Egineta,  in  the  seventh 
century,  described  Chinese  rhubarb.  As  early  as  the  second 
century  a  Jewish  University  existed  at  Sora,  where  medicine  was 
taught. 

With  the  rise  of  the  Saracens  into  intellectual  dominance,  the 

"  Meryon,  p.  115. 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Grseco-Roman,  Graeco-Egyptian,  and  Cushito-Aryan  schools  of 
medicine  and  pharmacy  became  united. 

The  practitioners  of  medicine  were  held  in  high  esteem  by 
the  Arabians.  Mahomet  himself  had  a  predilection  for  the 
healing  art.  There  is  very  good  reason  for  believing  that 
numerous  medical  works  were  preserved  from  the  destruction 
of  the  Alexandrian  library,  by  the  Arabian  physicians.  It  is 
certain  that  the  Arabs  had  medical  schools  at  Alexandria  for 
more  than  a  century  after  the  alleged  destruction  of  the 
library. 

The  practice  of  pharmacy  was  greatly  extended  by  the 
Arabians,  and  among  them  the  separation  of  medicine  and 
pharmacy  was  recognizable  as  early  as  the  eighth  century,  and 
was  established  by  law  in  the  eleventh.  There  were  two  great 
schools  among  them.  One  held  the  view  enunciated  by  Alke- 
kendi  in  the  ninth  century,  that  "  the  activity  of  a  medicine 
increases  in  a  duplicate  ratio  when  compounded  with  others," 
and  were  polypharmacists.  The  other  school,  noticeably  Avi- 
cenna.  opposed  this  view,  which  finally  received  its  coup  de  grace 
at  the  hands  of  Averroes  in  the  twelfth  century. 

As  many  of  the  drugs  used  were  imported  from  the  East,  a 
branch  of  dealers  sprung  up  who  were  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  apothecaries.  These  were,  properly  speaking,  physicians 
who  practiced  pharmacy,  and  who  existed  in  Italy  as  early  as 
the  eleventh  century.  The  school  of  Salerno  compelled  its 
graduates*  to  swear  not  to  give  or  accept  percentages  on  pre- 
scriptions. This  school  was  founded  in  the  seventh  century, 
and  subsequently  came  under  the  control  of  the  Arabs,  and 
adopted  from  them  the  practice  of  separating  medicine  from 
pharmacy.  Arctuarius,  who  wrote  in  the  eleventh  century,  dis- 
cusses pharmacy  at  great  length.  He  describes  laxatives  in  an 
exhaustive  manner,  and  discusses  "distilled  waters."  It  is 
certain  that  establishments  for  dispensing  medicines  existed  at 
Cordova,  Toledo,  and  other  large  towns  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Arabs,  prior  to  the  twelfth  century,  and  establishments  of  this 
character  were  placed  under  severe  legal  restrictions.  From 
their  regulation  Emperor  Frederic  II  drew  the  material  for 
the  law  passed  in  1233  (which  remained  in  force  for  a  long 

*  Meryon. 


Pharmacy  in  the  Middle  Ages.  23 

time  in  the  Two  Sicilies),  for  the  regulation  of  the  practice  of 
pharmacy.* 

According  to  this  law  every  medical  man  was  required  to 
give  information  against  any  pharmacist  who  should  sell  bad 
medicine.  Pharmacists  were  divided  into  two  classes.  First, 
the  stationarii,  who  sold  simple  medicines  and  "non-magistral" 
preparations,  according  to  a  tariff  determined  by  competent 
authorities;  and,  second,  the  confectionarii,  whose  business 
consisted  in  scrupulously  dispensing  the  prescriptions  of  the 
medical  men.  All  pharmacal  establishments  were  placed  under 
the  surveillance  of  the  College  of  Medicine. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  pharmacy  was,  to  a  great  extent, 
under  control  of  the  Arabian  physicians.  From  contact  with 
them  in  the  East,  the  religious  orders  (the  Benedictines  particu- 
larly) devoted  themselves  to  pharmacy,  pharmacology  and 
therapeutics.  These  monks  were  forbidden  to  shed  blood,  with 
the  result  that  surgery  fell  largely  into  the  hands  of  the  barbers. 
In  the  twelfth  century  the  Benedictine  monk,  ^Egidus,  wrote  a 
poetical  treatise  on  drugs,  which  was  long  accepted  by  the 
schools  as  an  authority.  The  rise  of  alchemy,  the  toxicological 
studies  which  the  fashion  of  the  age  cultivated,  and  the  taste 
for  spices,  combined  medicine,  pharmacy,  chemistry,  toxicology, 
the  grocery  business,  the  confectionery  business  and  barber- 
ing  into  one  trade,  which  united  the  learned  with  the  criminal 
poisoner. 

Under  the  auspices  of  the  Saracens,  pharmacy  attained  in 
Spain  and  Italy  a  status  it  never  lost.  The  development  of 
national  life  in  Germany  and  England  having  taken  place  some- 
what later  than  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  the  beginning  of 
pharmacal  history  in  the  former  is  of  a  comparatively  recent 
date.  The  cities  give  the  earliest  manifestations  of  the  division 
of  labor  in  medicine,  which  signalizes  the  origin  of  independent 
pharmacy. 

In  Germany  the  history  of  pharmacy  begins  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  In  1267  a  drug-store  is  found  to  exist  at  Muenster,  in 
1285  one  at  Augsburg,  and  in  1318  still  another  one  at  Hildes- 
heim.  The  latter  was  originally  the  property  of  the  church,  but 

*  Hoefer,  Histoire  de  la  Chimie  depuis  les  Temps  les  plus  recules  jusqu'a  notre 
Epoque,  1842. 


24  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

after  the  year  1365  was  controlled  by  the  city.  Undoubtedly 
other  large  German  cities  had  drug-stores  at  this  time,  although 
definite  records  are  not  extant.  That  the  boundary  line  of 
medicine  and  pharmacy  was  even  then  (1350)  clearly  defined  is 
proven  by  the  existence  of  a  parchment  ordinance  of  the  city  of 
Nuremberg.  This  decree  ordains  that  the  druggist  shall  con- 
scientiously  fill  all  written  and  verbal  orders  on  him  according 
to  his  best  ability  ;  that  he  shall  use  none  but  pure  drugs  ;  that 
he  shall  treat  rich  and  poor  with  equal  courtesy  ;  that  he  shall 
be  modest  in  his  charges,  and  not  demand  more  than  he  needs  to 
feed  and  clothe  himself  and  those  dependent  upon  him,  allowing 
a  reasonable  advance  on  the  price  of  the  drug  as  a  compensation 
for  his  services. 

In  those  early  days  medicinal  substances  were  largely  imported 
from  Italy.  The  remainder  consisted  in  great  part  of  simple 
mechanical  mixtures  and  compounds.  From  these  facts  it  is 
evident  that  these  early  drug-stores  partook  largely  of  the  char- 
acter of  grocery  stores.  They  were,  in  fact,  a  survival  of  the 
stationarii  of  the  edict  of  1233.  In  France  and  England  grocers 
and  spicers  were  early  united  with  apothecaries.  There  was, 
however,  not  a  little  internecine  contest  between  the  mere  drug 
and  spice  seller  and  the  practitioner  of  pharmacy.  The  first 
considered  himself  only  a  merchant ;  the  latter  affiliated  with  the 
physicians  and  surgeons.  This  internecine  strife  led  to  a  sep- 
aration, to  the  great  discomfiture  of  the  grocers,  who  were 
thus  deprived  of  the  profits  arising  from  the  sale  of  "strong 
waters." 

In  1345  King  Edward  III  of  England  gave  a  pension  of 
of  six  pence  a  day  to  Coursus  de  Gangland,  an  .apothecary  of 
London,  for  taking  care  of  and  attending  his  majesty  during  his 
illness  in  Scotland.  That  the  separation  of  the  apothecary  from 
the  physician  was  pretty  complete  about  this  time,  and  that  the 
populace  suspected  both  of  giving  and  taking  percentages  on 
prescriptions,  will  appear  from  the  "Canterbury  Tales,"  in 
which  Chaucer  says  about  his  physician  : 

"  Full  ready  had  he  apotecaries 
To  send  him  drugs  and  lectuaries, 
For  each  of  them  made  other  to  winne 
Their  friendship  was  not  new  to  begin." 


Pharmacy  in  the  Middle  Ages,  25 

The  grocers  and  apothecaries  were  legally  united  in  England 
at  this  time  by  act  of  Parliament. 

The  first  trace  of  a  pharmacal  corporate  body  is  to  be 
found  in  Bruges,  in  Belgium,  in  1297.  This  corporation  pos- 
sessed at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  a  spacious  hall 
for  its  affairs,  a  seal,  statutes,  and  a  chapel.  Here  divine- service 
was  daily  performed,  new  members  were  admitted  and  sworn  in. 
Besides  other  wares,  they  had  the  exclusive  sale  of  medicines. 
Members  of  distinguished  families  belonged  to  the  guild,  held 
the  office  of  magistrate  and  other  positions  of  dignity.  The 
corporation,  being  possessed  of  great  riches  and  privileges,  gave 
the  town  at  different  times  large  sums  for  patriotic  purposes. 
Our  earliest  knowledge  of  ancient  established  pharmacies  we 
owe  to  wood-cuts  coeval  with  the  early  human  exploits  in  fields 
of  science  which  collectively  form  the  early  chapters  of  a  history 
of  civilization.  The  wood-cut  of  those  olden  days  frequently 
imparts  clearer  ideas  concerning  the  pharmacist's  life  than  words 
could  convey.  Bruges  is  known  to  have  had  its  apothecaries 
from  the  earliest  days  of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  first 
recorded  apothecary  shop  in  London  was  mentioned  in  1345,  the 
first  in  France  in  1336,  the  first  in  Germany  in  the  thirteenth 
century. 

A  very  ancient  memorial  of  an  apothecaries  guild,  Fig.  n, 
may  be  seen  in  the  gateway  of  the  Minster  at  Ulm  (Germany). 
It  is  an  epitaph  with  the  picture  of  a  woman  in  the  civilian  dress 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  She  is  seen  standing  on  a  dog,  with 
her  head  resting  on  a  pillow,  which  bears  the  coat  of  arms  of  the 
"Ehinger"  family.  The  inscription  on  the  margins  of  the 
stone  reads  as  follows  :  "In  1383.  died,  margareta.  hainczen 
winkel's  daughter.  apothecaress.  On  saint  Mathews'  day." 
The  presence  of  the  "  Ehinger  "  coat  of  arms  lends  plausibility 
to  the  inference  that  the  husband  of  the  "apothecaress,"  "whose 
family  name  is  not  given,"  was  a  member  of  the  Ehinger  family. 
The  dog  under  the  female  figure  (frequently  pictured  in  this 
position  on  the  epitaph  of  the  female  dead  in  the  Middle  Ages) 
denotes  that  the  soul  of  the  departed  has  now  surmounted  all 
carnal  and  earthly  desires.  During  the  Middle  Ages  and  in 
antiquity  the  dog  was  looked  upon  not  as  a  symbol  of  faithful- 
ness, but  as  an  unclean  animal. 


Fig.  ii. 

MEMORIAL  OK  THE!  APOTHECARIES  GUILD  AT  ULM,  A.  D. 
(26) 


Pharmacy  in  tlie  Middle 


27 


Figure  12,  probably  the  oldest  illustration  of  a  drug-store 
extant,  is  taken  from  the  "Ars  Memorativa,"  published  by  Anton 
Sorg  in  1470.  Its  most  salient  feature  is  a  druggist  comminuting 
some  drug  in  a  three-legged  mortar.  Before  the  introduction  of 
chemistry  into  pharmacy  the  mortar  was  no  doubt  the  pharma- 
cist's principal  companion,  for  the  breaking  up  of  crude 
drugs  was  then  his  main  pharmacal  manipulation.  The  back- 


Fig.  12. 
ILLUSTRATION  OF  DRUG-STORE,  1430. 

ground  is  taken  up  by  shelves  that  are  loaded  down  with  con- 
tainers from  floor  to  ceiling. 

Figure  7,  which  introduces  this  chapter,  taken  from  the  work 
"Ortus  sanitatis"  (the  "Garden  of  Health"),  represents  a 
drug-store.  At  the  end  of  the  book  are  these  words  :  "Gedruckt 
vnd  volendet  diser  Herbarius  durch  Hannsen  schonsperger  in  der 
Keserylichen  statt  zu  Augspurg  an  sant  -Bonifacius  tag  Anno 
MCCCC  vn  in  dem  LXXXVI  jare."  [This  herbarium  was  printed 
and  completed  by  Hannsen  Schoensperger  at  the  imperial  city  of 
Augsburg,  on  Saint  Bonifacius  day,  in  the  year  1486].  In  the 
foreground  the  figures  of  five  men  are  outlined.  These  no  doubt 
are  intended  to  represent  the  masters  in  medicine,  since  the 
following  names  are  inscribed  below  these  outlines  in  the  original : 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Galenus,  Avicenna,  Plinius,  Serapion  and  Dioscorides.  Back  of 
these  figures  stands  a  prescription  counter,  on  which  can  be  seen 
a  book,  scale,  mortar,  and  a  number  of  boxes.  At  the  table  the 


Fig.  13- 

(From  a  book  of  1505). 

ancient  prototype  of  the  apprentice  is  lustily  pounding  away  at 
some  obdurate  root  or  herb,  whilst  the  spirits  of  the  great  fathers 
of  medicine  stand  before  his  mind  as  worthy  sires  for  emulation 
and  hallowed  veneration. 


Pharmacy  in  tlie  Middle  Ages.  29 

Figure  13  is  taken  from  a  work  by  Hieronymus  Brunschwygk, 
entitled  "  Das  nxiv  Buch  der  rechten  kunst  zu  distilliren.  Ouch 
von  Marsilio  Ficino  vn  andrer  hochbero'mpter  Artzte  natiirliche 
vnd  gute  kunst  zu  behalten  den  gesunden  leib  vnd  zu  vertryben 
die  kranckheit  mit  erlengerung  des  lebens,"  [The  new  book  on  the 
art  of  distilling.  Also  the  natural  and  good  art  of  preserving  a 
healthy  body,  to  banish  disease  and  to  prolong  life ;  by  Marsilio 
Ficino  and  other  renowned  doctors.  Published  in  1505].  An 
earlier  edition  of  this  work  was  published  by  Grueninger  at 
Strassburg  in  1500. 


Fig.  14. 

A  WATER  JUG. 

In  these  illustrations  of  Middle  Age  pharmacies,  it  is  to  be 
noted  that,  in  place  of  labels,  the  containers  bear  the  coats  of 
arms  of  titled  families  and  the  badges  of  cities. 

The  attaching  of  coats  of  arms  to  furniture  and  all  household 
utensils  was  much  practiced  in  those  days,  and  as  in  all  probability 
special  containers  were  not  made  for  pharmacies  thus  early,  such 
bottles  and  jars  were  chosen  as  could  be  found  in  the  market,  so 
that  although  these  escutcheons,  etc.,  could  serve  no  useful  pur- 
pose, they  certainly  proved  to  be  quite  ornamental. 

Whether  or  not  a  system  of  numbering  was  in  use  for  deter- 
mining the  contents,  as  in  later  centuries,  is  not  known.  The 
stars  in  Figure  13  probably  served  for  ornamental  purposes  only. 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


In  the  "  Ortus  sanitatis,"  the  containers  in  which  medicinal  sub- 
stances were  preserved,  find  frequent  illustration.     Distilled  water 


Fig-  15- 

A  VINEGAR  JUG. 


Fig.   16. 
WOODEN  BOX. 


Fig.   17. 
WOODEN  BOX. 


and  vinegar  were  kept  in  earthen  jars,  Figures  14  and  15.  Small 
quantities  of  dry  substances  were  kept  in  small  wooden  boxes, 
Figure  16.  Roots  and  herbs  in  larger  quantities  were  kept  in. 


Pharmacy  in  the  Middle  Ages. 


large,  round  wooden  boxes,  like  Figure  17.  Figure  18,  taken 
from  the  same  work,  depicts  a  peddler  offering  "red  earth" 
for  sale.  Red  earth  was  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes ;  as 
a  polishing  powder,  as  a  paint,  as  a  background  in  the  pro- 
cess of  gilding,  and  by  others  as  a  curative  agent.  In  the  text 


Fig.  18. 

ANCIENT  PEDDLER. 

it  is  described  as  a  "Bolus  armenus  vel  lutum  armenum,"  and 
Armenia  is  specially  emphasized  as  its  source  of  introduction. 

The  laboratory  of  the  Middle  Age  pharmacist  appears  in 
Figure  19.  An  apprentice  is  handling  a  tripod  over  an  open 
fire  under  the  direction  of  his  master,  but  the  furniture  of  a 
laboratory  of  the  Middle  Ages  was  by  no  means  so  limited  as 
would  appear  from  the  illustration.  The  medical  works  of  those 
days  speak  of  the  multiplicity  of  apparatus  and  utensils  then  in. 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Fig.    19. 

PHARMACAL  LABORATORY,  A.  D. 


Fig.  20. 

(From  "Book  of  Herbs,"  1586). 
(33) 


In  my  shop  of  drugs  are  stored 
Many  things  of  sweet  accord, 
Spices  with  sugar  I  combine, 
Enemas  and  purges  I  divine. 
To  strengthen  the  weak  and  the  sickly, 
Refreshing  draughts  I  furnish  quickly. 
All  these,  with  utmost  care, 
On  prescriptions  I  prepare. 

HANS  SACHS, 
"True  Description  of  all  Professions."     1568. 


in    the    Sixteenth    <reitlury. 


21,  from  the  "Reformation  of  Pharmacy, 
An  Illustrated  Book  of  Herbs ;"  by  Otto  Brunfels, 
of  Mayence,  depicts  the  interior  of  a  sixteenth  cen- 
tury drug-store.  The  "  Reformation  of  Pharmacy" 
was  originally  an  essay  presented  by  Dr.  Brunfels, 
then  city  physician  of  Berne,  to  the  Honorable  Council  of  that 
city.  At  the  instance  of  his  widow,  the  work  was  published  at 


Fig.  21. 
DRUG-STORE,  A.  D.  1536. 

Strasburgten  years  later,  with  this  picture  on  its  title  page.  From 
this  illustration  it  is  obvious  that  labels  were  beginning  to  take 
the  place  of  the  coats-of-arms  of  the  earlier  pharmacy.  Brunfels 

(35) 


3" 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


describes  with  great  care  the  containers  for  each  kind  of  medi- 
cine. Dry,  delicate  and  aromatic  herbs  should  be  so  preserved 
as  to  prevent  stagnation  or  a  too  ready  escape  of  the  odoriferous 
principles  with  which  their  medicinal  virtues  are  intimately  asso- 
ciated. Moist  drugs  must  be  kept  in  silver,  glass  or  horn  jars. 
Eye  unguents  must  be  preserved  in  china,  whereas  marrow,  lard 
and  crude  matter  of  like  character  may  be  kept  in  zinc  boxes. 
Oils  are  best  kept  in  glass.  Species  aromatic  in  gold  or  silver 
material.  Theriac,  if  genuine,  would  be  worthy  of  a  golden  box, 
but  one  of  zinc  or  lead  will  answer. 


Fig.  22. 

DRUG-STORE,  A.  D.  1548. 

The  elaborate  table  coverings  in  Fig.  21,  indicate  that  some 

care  was  taken  to  please  the  eye.     By  way  of  ornamentation,  to 

ttract  the  customer  and   to  give   the   store  a  more  fantastic 

appearance,  it  was  decorated  with  strange  animal  forms,  plants 

•d  other  curiosities.     Fig.  22  (from  "A  Book  of  Confections, 

Family  Physician,"  by  G.  Ryff,  of  Strassburg,  1548),  shows 

?d  crocodile  for  this  purpose.     This  picture  vividly  recalls 

he  description  of  an  apothecary  given  by  Shakespere  fifty  years 

later  in  "  Romeo  and  Juliet :" 


Pharmacy  in  the  Sixteenth   Century. 


I  do  remember  an  apothecary,  — 

And  hereabouts  he  dwells,  —  which  late  I  noted 

In  tatter'd  weeds,  with  overwhelming  brows 

Culling  of  simples  ;  meagre  were  his  looks, 

Sharp  misery  had  worn  him  to  the  bones  : 

And  in  his  needy  shop  a  tortoise  hung, 

An  alligator  stuffed,  and  other  skins 

Of  ill-shaped  fishes  ;  and  about  his  shelves 

A  beggarly  account  of  empty  boxes, 

Green  earthen  pots,  bladders  and  musty  seeds, 

Remnants  of  packthread  and  old  cakes  of  roses, 

Were  thinly  scattered  to  make  up  a  show. 

"  A  True  Description  of  all  Professions,"  published  at  Frank- 
furt in  1568,  with  wood-cuts  by  Jost  Amman,  and  words  by  the 


Fig.  23. 

DRUG-STORE,  1568. 

poetic  son  of  St.  Crispin,  Hans  Sachs,  devotes  a  cut  to  the 
apothecaries  guild  (Figure  23).  Above  the  shelves  proper  are 
cones  of  sugar.  Ryff  ("  Family  Physician  ")  says  :  "  Honey  and 
sugar  are  the  druggist's  chief  stock  in  trade.  He  uses  it  for  his 
confects,  electuaries,  preserves,  syrups,  julips  and  other  precious 


38  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

mixtures."  Sugar,  moreover,  was  one  of  the  main  sources  of 
income  for  the  sixteenth  century  druggist.  This  century  was 
peculiarly  unkind  to  the  apothecaries,  especially  as  they  were 
involved  in  perpetual  contentions  with  the  physicians. 

From  the  twelfth  century  until  the  Reformation,  Arabian  phar- 
macy, with  its  complicated  mixtures,  had  been  in  the  ascendancy. 
But  with  the  period  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  discovery  of  print- 
ing, came  the  study  of  the  Greek  classics,  and  Arabianism,  with 
its  complex  therapeutics  was  banished  from  occidental  medicine. 
The  teachings  of  Hippocrates  and  other  Greeks,  and  Averroes, 
dwelt  largely  on  the  dietetic  treatment  of  the  sick.  The  services 
of  the  apothecary  were,  therefore,  less  demanded  than  formerly. 

The  position  of  the  pharmacist  in  England  was  a  relatively 
high  one.  The  separation  of  pharmacal  from  medical  practice 
was  almost  complete  in  the  sixteenth  century  in  England. 
Bulleyn,  "  Queen  Anne  Bulleyn's  cousin,"  a  prominent  apothe- 
cary, laid  down  the  following  rules  for  the  practice  of  pharmacy  : 

The  apothecary  must  first  serve  God  ;  foresee  the  end,  be  cleanly,  and  pity 
the  poor.  His  place  of  dwelling  and  shop  must  be  cleanly,  to  please  the  senses 
withal.  His  garden  must  be  at  hand  with  plenty  of  herbs,  seeds  and  roots. 
He  must  read  Dioscorides.  He  must  have  his  mortars,  stills,  pots,  filters, 
glasses,  boxes,  clean  and  sweet.  He  must  have  two  places  in  his  shop,  one 
most  clean  for  physic  and  the  base  place  for  chirurgic  stuff.  He  is  neither  to 
decrease  nor  diminish  the  physician's  prescription.  He  is  neither  to  buy  nor 
sell  rotten  drugs.  He  must  be  able  to  open  well  a  vein,  for  to  help  pleurisy. 
He  is  to  meddle  only  in  his  own  vocation,  and  to  remember  that  his  office  is 
only  to  be  the  physician's  cook. 

These  rules,  save,  perhaps  the  last,  are  not  so  antiquated  as 
to  merit  oblivion.  Long  after  the  division  of  the  practice  of 
medicine  the  apothecaries  continued  subordinate  to  the  medical 
practitioner,  who  used  all  possible  endeavors  to  subject  them  to 
his  will.  Jealousies  arose  between  the  two  classes  which  occa- 
sioned endless  disputes. 

In  France  these  disputes  assumed  a  somewhat  farcical  phase. 
The  physicians,  enraged  at  advice  being  given  by  apothecaries, 
determined  to  starve  them  out,  and  by  prescribing  only  simple 
remedies  from  herbalists  they  subdued  the  rebel  apothecary, 
obliging  him  to  take  the  following  oath  : 

I  swear  and  promise  before  God,  the  Author  and  Creator  of  all  things,  One 
tid  divided  in  Three  Persons,  eternally  blessed,  that  I  will  observe 
strictly  the  following  articles  : 


Pharmacy  in  the  Sixteenth   Century.  39 

First.      I  promise  to  live  and  die  in  the  Christian  faith. 

Second.  To  love  and  honor  my  parents  to  the  utmost ;  also,  to  honor,  respect 
and  render  service,  not  only  to  the  medical  doctors  who  have  imparted  to  me 
the  precepts  of  pharmacy,  but  also  to  my  teachers  and  masters  from  whom  I 
have  learned  my  trade. 

Third.  Not  to  slander  any  of  my  ancient  teachers  or  masters,  whoever  they 
may  be  ;  also,  to  do  all  I  can  for  the  honor,  glory  and  majesty  of  physic. 

Fourth.  Never  to  teach  to  ungrateful  persons  or  fools  the  secrets  and 
mysteries  of  the  trade  ;  never  to  do  anything  rashly  without  the  advice  of  a 
physician,  or  from  the  sole  desire  of  gain  ;  never  to  give  any  medicine  or  purge 
to  invalids  afflicted  with  acute  disease  without  first  consulting  one  of  the  faculty. 

Fifth.  Never  to  examine  woman  privately,  unless  by  great  necessity,  or  to 
apply  to  them  some  necessary  remedy;  never  to  divulge  the  secrets  confided  tome. 

Sixth.  Never  to  administer  poisons,  nor  recommend  their  administration, 
even  to  our  greatest  enemies,  nor  to  give  drinks  to  produce  abortion,  without 
the  advice  of  a  physician,  also  to  execute  accurately  their  prescriptions,  without 
adding  or  diminishing  anything  contained  in  them,  that  they  may  in  every 
respect  be  prepared  " secundem  artem.'y 

Seventh.  Never  to  use  any  succedaneum  or  substitute  without  the  advice 
of  others  wiser  than  myself;  to  disown  and  shun  as  a  pestilence  the  scandalous 
and  pernicious  practices  of  quacks,  empirics  and  alchymists,  which  exist  to  the 
great  shame  of  the  magistrates  who  tolerate  them. 

Lastly.  To  give  aid  and  assistance  indiscriminately  to  all  who  employ  me, 
and  to  keep  no  stale  or  bad  drug  in  my  shop.  May  God  continue  to  bless  me 
so  long  as  I  continue  to  obey  these  things. 

In  Belgium,  where  the  profession  had  become  overcrowded,  it 
became  necessary  to  limit  the  number.  An  act  was  passed  in 
1582  that  no  one  should  open  an  apothecary  shop  who  had  not 
previously  studied  pharmacy  during  three  years,  and  adduced 
theoretical  and  practical  demonstrations  of  his  knowledge  and 
capabilities,  and  taken  the  oath  of  the  body  corporate.  In  1585 
a  further  act  was  enacted  regarding  the  sale  of  arsenic.  In 
Bruges,  in  1683,  on  complaint  of  the  apothecaries,  medical  prac- 
titioners were  forbidden  to  dispense  under  heavy  penalty.  During 
the  first  three  days  only  of  the  annual  fair  were  charlatans  and 
tooth-drawers  allowed  in  the  town.  Over-crowding  had  left  its 
imprint  on  the  profession  elsewhere,  notably  in  Amsterdam,  Basel, 
Venice,  Nuremburg,  etc.,  with  the  result  that  the  devices  for  mak- 
ing money  that  the  apothecaries  were  compelled  to  adopt,  threat- 
ened general  disorganization.  To  mitigate  this  evil,  the  Emperor 
Charles  V,  at  the  Congress  of  Augsburg  in  1548,  decreed  as  follows  : 

"  It  having  come  to  our  ears  that  deteriorated  and  spurious  drugs  are  being 
dispensed  on  physicians'  prescriptions,  which,  if  taken  into  the  system,  will  do 
more  harm  than  good,  we  do  herewith  decree,  that  it  is  our  will  that  the 


40  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

authorities  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  apothecaries'  trade,  should  annually 
visit  and  inspect  their  shops,  and  also  fix  the  values  of  all  materials  there  found, 
so  that  the  buyer  shall  in  no  way  be  deceived."  * 

This  decree  appears  to  have  been  heeded  by  the  authorities 
and  to  have  borne  fruit,  for  on  July  8,  1551,  the  council  of 
Xuremburg  passed  a  number  of  resolutions,  one  of  which  ordains 
that  "  in  future  no  new  drug-store  shall  be  established,  nor  shall 
a  new  one  take  the  place  of  any  which  may  be  discontinued." 
When  in  1578  Valerius  Pfister  found  his  business  declining,  the 
city  council  ordered  the  other  sixth  druggist  to  buy  his  shop, 
promising  the  latter  that  no  new  pharmacy  "except  the  hospital 
pharmacy"  (which  was  the  eighth),  should  be  tolerated  in  Nurem- 
burg. 

Individual  cities  had  instituted  inspection  of  pharmacies  at 
an  earlier  day,  Bruges  in  1497  and  Nuremburg  in  1442.  But  in 
the  latter  city  all  drug-stores  were  visited  in  one  day;  hence 
the  inspection  cannot  have  been  very  thorough.  Since  phar- 
macists, even  at  this  early  day,  were  accused  of  overcharging, 
the  evil  was  regulated  by  affixing  a  specific  selling  price  to  each 
drug.  Though  the  purchasing  power  of  coin  at  that  time  is  no 
certain  measure  of  its  value  now,  yet  the  following  apothecary's 
bill  of  the  sixteenth  century  may  throw  some  light  on  the  prices 
of  drugs : 

SIR  PAULUS  BECHAIM. 

March  agth.     Two  draughts 64 pfg. 

3Oth.     One  heart-water 42 

Fresh  cassia 56 

Rose  honey 16 

Spices  and  herbs '     56 

3ist.     Spices  and  herbs 42 

Minth 4 

April  soth.     One  heart-water ........  42 

Manna 40.   18 

Head-wash jg 

Heart-flower g 

Electuary ,g 

Liver-water 2. 

Draught 26 

Summa    2.JI.  2  lb.     %  pfg. 
Paid,  April  3oth,  1551. 

ALBRECHT  PFISTER. 

•  From  "  Collegium  Pharmaceuticum"  of  the  city  of  Nuremburg,  p.  149. 


Pharmacy  in  the  Sixteenth  Century. 


Pharmacist  Albrecht  Pfister,  who  receipted  this  bill,  was 
born  in  1500  and  died  in  1564.  He  owned  a  drug-store  in 
Binder  Street,  Nuremburg,  still  in  existence  and  known  as  the 
"  Star- Pharmacy." 

The  condition  of  the  drug  trade  is  very  lucidly  pictured  in  a 
memorial  of  the  druggists  of  Nuremburg,  in  1581,  to  the  council, 
defending  themselves  against  charges  made  by  physicians. 
Many  complaints  therein  enumerated  are  even  now  frequently 
heard  ;  a  few  extracts  from  this  memorial  will  therefore  be  of 
interest : 

May  it  please  the  Honorable  Council  to  lend  ear  to  our  complaints,  and  in 
conformity  therewith  to  see  fit,  in  such  a  manner,  to  protect  our  interests,  that 
henceforth  we  shall  not  be  unduly  oppressed  by  the  physicians,  and  that  each 
of  us  shall  be  enabled  to  enjoy  the  just  results  of  his  labors.  The  following, 
honorable  sirs,  forms  the  substance  of  our  complaint : 

1.  The  sale  of  all  confections,  formerly  dispensed  by  us,  has  now  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  the  sugar  dealer. 

2.  Counter  sales  are  now  made  by  all  the  large  spice  and  cheap  corner 
grocery  shops,  thus  robbing  the  druggist  of  a  source  of  profit  that  he  is  justly 
entitled  to. 

3.  The  sale  of  sundries,  such  as  sealing  wax,  fumigating  pastiles,  paper 
ink  and  pens,  is  now  taking  place  in  common  huckster  shops. 

4.  The  sugar  dealers  are  not  only  selling  confections  but  also  all  kinds 
of  fruit  juices,  electuaries  of  quinces,  and  all  such  preserves  that  do  not  deterio- 
rate in  the  course  of  a  year. 

5.  All  distilled  waters,  oils,  and  the  like,  which  were  formerly  kept  by 
druggists  only,  are  now  indiscriminately  sold  by  any  ignoramus  who  imagines 
himself  qualified  to  engage  in  this  traffic. 

6.  Unguenta   and   Emplastra,  which  certainly  belong   to   the  exclusive 
field  of  pharmacy,  are  now  dispensed  by  barbers  and  ignorant  physicians,  who 
are  neither  justified  by  precedent  nor  by  qualification  to  handle  these  things. 

7.  Now,  many  expensive  medicamenta  are,  every  year,  carried  over  and 
deteriorate,  because  the  doctors  do  not  prescribe  them,  and  they  prove  a  total 
loss  to  the  druggist.     Of  such  medicines  we  will  but  enumerate  the  fruit  juices, 
the  purging  elixir  of  roses,  etc.  ;  furthermore,  the  "electuaria  solutiva,  tarn  in 
liqtiida,  quam  in  solida  forma,"  and  the  "  massa  pillularum  et  trochiscorum 
genera." 

In  this  summary  it  will  be  noticed  the  delightful  confectiones 
are  entirely  forgotten.  Species  and  confectiones  comfortativae  are 
also  overlooked.  The  principal  cause  of  this  state  of  things  is, 
that  the  "  physicians  are  eternally  devising  new  and  extraor- 
dinary remedies."  After  dilating  upon  other  more  or  less  impor- 
tant points,  the  memorial  further  says  : 


Dv  GEAECHTEnGoT  SEaAOT/HYLFV  MIR  AVS     ALLER  ANGST  VNf  NO!/      ^TcH  DEIN 

HEYLIGL  FVNF  WVNDEN  ROT.  j  VERZ1IH!  MIR  HERR  »tEIN  SIND7  VND  SCHV1.DT/  ER2FYO 

DE1NCZNAD  VT«D  HVLUfVERl-ElHE  MIR  DEMV7  VND  GICWLOToAil  5VTJDLICH  JVST 

HER*  VON  MIRTREIB/DIRBETEHL  ICH  SEEI'EHH.  VNB  LtiB/etH 

AVCH  KINDT  VND  WEJB.«  HERR  GOT  DEIN  HYIFT  AN  VNS  BEVEIS../ OIKSAGEN 

W1R  LOB  EHKVKD  PRilS    / tjmoR  V Ns  HzRR  VND  SCHLAFT  )A  LEIS"  OEJN  AvO 
SEMI  AV»  VNS  ALLI  ZEIT'  IN  NOTTEN  SEI  VQN  VNS  MIGHT  WEJTv  £jO<AJ.7   VNS 

IN  FwiGKEiT'  AJUEN  * 


Fig.  24. 

AN  APOTHECARY,  1565. 
1  Translation — Foot-note,  page  43. 


(42) 


Pharmacy  in  the  Sixteenth   Century. 


"  We  were  pained  to  learn  that  the  physicians  have  charged  us  with  selling 
adulterated  and  injurious  drugs,  and  declare  that  the  public  had  on  this 
account  withdrawn  its  patronage  from  us.  Self  preservation  and  honor  demand 
that  we  no  longer  remain  quiet  under  these  accusations.  Albeit,  there  may  be 
persons  who  do  not  wish  to  deal  with  us,  there  are,  nevertheless,  numbers  that 
prefer  to  be  treated  by  us,  and  if  we  deny  them  the  succor  asked  for,  and  send 
them  to  the  physician,  they  will  be  displeased  and  go  without  any  treatment  what- 
ever. This  much,  also,  is  certain,  that  if  we  would  dispense  medicines  in  all 
cases  where  we  are  called  upon  to  prescribe,  we  would  shortly  have  more 
patients  than  the  physicians.  We  have,  furthermore,  abundant  proof  that  the 
physicians  frequently  overstep  the  boundary  line  of  their  field.  They,  for 
instance,  prescribe  in  German,  so  that  any  barber  or  old  woman  can  prepare 
the  medicine,  and  the  druggist  is  ignored." 

No  further  proof  is  needed  that  the  golden  age  of  pharmacy 
is  not  to  be  found  in  the  past. 

Figure  24,  from  an  etching  dated  1565,  in  the  Germanic 
Museum,  depicts  a  representative  sixteenth  century  pharmacist, 
named  Cyriacus  Schnaus,  kneeling  on  his  mortar  absorbed  in 
offering  a  fervent  prayer.  Schnaus  practiced  the  black  art,  and 
is  mentioned  with  the  printers  of  his  time.  He  is  known  to  have 
been  engaged  in  literary  pursuits. 

In  Germany  at  the  close  of  this  century  the  services  of  the 
apothecary  had  become  so  important  that  in  times  of  war 
regular  field  pharmacies  were  organized.  Works  were  published 
in  1582  and  1596  giving  directions  for  furnishing  traveling  and 
field  pharmacies.  The  Nuremburg  complaint  made  against  the 
spicers  and  sugar-bakers  indicates  that  grocers  and  herbalists 
were  becoming  separate  occupations,  and  that  the  pharmacist 
was  assuming  more  the  position  of  a  professional  man  and  less 
that  of  a  tradesman,  considerably  to  his  pecuniary  detriment. 
Toward  the  end  of  the  present  century  this  tendency  to  separa- 
tion became  especially  marked  in  the  Grocer's  Company  of 
England,  which  then'  included  the  apothecaries.  The  "  Station- 
arii"  and  "  Confectionarii"  of  the  thirteenth  century  had  become 
merged  in  the  fourteenth,  but  were  now  beginning  a  final  separa- 
tion into  grocers,  spicers,  sugar-bakers,  and  apothecaries. 


Fig.  25. 
(From  a  "  Medical  Code,"  1652). 


(45) 


'  What  once  we  did  as  Nature's  secret  rate, 

We  now  do  coolly  investigate, 
And  what  once  Dame  Nature  organized, 
That  is  by  us  now  crystallized." 

—FAUST. 


Sour. 


pltormacy  tn  tfi*  SeuiMttecnth  (T.ctiturij. 

)OD-ENGRAVING,  which  had  attained  its  highest 
development  during  the  sixteenth  century,  was,, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  sup- 
planted by  copper-plate,  which  had  been  grad- 
ually growing  in  favor.  The  wood-cut,  from  the 
time  of  the  Thirty-years  War  down  to  the  nineteenth  century. 
fell  into  almost  entire  disuse.  To  the  Englishman,  Thomas. 
Bewick,  is  due  what  might  properly  be  called  the  rediscovery  of 
the  woodcut,  early  in  the  present  century.  Owing  to  the  greater 
expense  of  the  copper-print,  the  seventeenth  century  books  con- 
tain much  fewer  illustrations  than  those  of  the  time  immediately 
precedent.  This  dearth  of  illustrations  is  discernible  in  the 
pharmacal  publications  of  the  period  under  consideration. 

Fig.  25  is  a  copperprint  from  the  title-page  of  an  ordinance 
concerning  the  tax  regulations  of  drugs  in  the  city  of  Nuremburg 
in  1652.  It  depicts  the  ancient  classical  medical  authorities.  To 
the  left  is  the  Greek  physician,  Hippocrates,  and  to  the  right 
Galenus  of  Pergamus,  who  practiced  in  Rome. 

The  numerous  additions  to  the  materia  medica  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  brought  about  a  considerable  change  in  the 
equipment  of  pharmacies.  Two  causes  were  influential  in  bring- 
ing about  this  increase  in  the  materia  medica,  —  the  extensive 
introduction  of  American  drugs,  and  the  adoption  of  chemical 
remedies.  The  latter  had,  in  isolated  instances,  been  employed 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  introduction  of  chemical  remedies 
into  therapeutics  is  largely  due  to  "  Philippus  Theophrastus 
Bombastus,  of  Hohenheim,"  known  as  "Paracelsus"  (Figure  26). 
(47) 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


He  was  born  in.  1490  near  Einsiedeln,  in  the  Canton  Schwyz, 
and  began  his  medical  studies  in  the  University  of  Basel.  His 
extensive  knowledge  of  the  natural  sciences,  acquired  during  his 
sojourn  at  other  renowned  universities,  his  close  observations 
during  his  extensive  travels  over  Europe,  together  with  his 


FHJLIPPV.y    THTOPHRAS-n 


Fig.  26. 

PARACELSUS. 
(From  a  work,  1568). 

knowledge  of  medicine,  eminently  qualified  him  for  the  duties  of 
city  physician  of  Basel,  which  office  he  accepted  in  1526.  The 
following  year  he  lectured  at  the  university. 

In  imitation  of  Luther,  who   had   inaugurated   his  church 
reformation  by  burning  the  bulls  of  the  Pope,  Paracelsus  began 


Pharmacy  in  the  Seventeenth  Century. 


49 


his  reformatory  activity  by  burning  the  highly  prized  works  of 
the  Arabian,  Avicenna,  "  the  Prince  of  Physicians,"  and  those 
of  other  medical  authorities,  on  St.  John's  day,  in  the  year 
1527,  exclaiming,  "I  have  burned  all  these  books  so  that  all 
misery  may  be  carried  away  with  their  smoke."  Like  Luther, 
he  discarded  Latin,  and  wrote  the  greater  number  of  his  books 
in  German,  the  language  of  the  people,  a  proceeding  directly 
opposed  to  all  customs  and  usages.  He  afterward  boasted  that 
he  had  not  read  a  book  in  ten  years.  He  protested  that  his 
shoebuckles  were  more  learned  than  Galen  and  Avicenna.  He 
had  a  dogma  of  his  own.  This  man,  in  whom  learning  and 
quackery  were  so  singularly  combined,  "believed  that  the  human 
body  was  a  microcosm,"  which  corresponded  to  the  "macro- 
cosm," and  contained  in  itself  all  parts  of  visible  nature,  sun, 
moon,  stars  and  the  poles  of  heaven.  Disease,  according  to  his 
mystical  conception,  was  not  natural  but  spiritual.  Therefore 
some  remedy  had  to  be  introduced  which  was  antagonistic,  not 
to  the  disease  in  a  physical  sense,  but  to  the  spiritual  seed  of  the 
disease.  These  remedies  were  called  "Arcana,"  a  word  which 
implied  a  mysterious  connection  between  the  remedy  and  the 
essence  of  the  disease  and  in  its  relation  to  medicine,  somewhat 
akin  to  the  word  "  specific,"  at  the  present  day. 

Great  importance  was  attached  to  chemically  prepared  reme- 
dies, as  containing  the  essence  or  spiritual  quality  of  the  material 
from  which  they  were  derived.  His  followers  were  therefore 
known  as  "chemical"  physicians.  The  most  notorious  of  that 
school  in  England  was  a  certain  Anthony.  Paracelsus  still 
accepted  the  old  physical  elements,  but  attributed  qualities  to 
them  more  in  conformity  with  modern  views.  Altogether  he  held 
that  his  "arcana"  were  semi-spiritual  beings  like  the  "quinta 
essentia"  of  Aristotle  ;  he  nevertheless  believed  that  he  could 
dissolve  or  extract  them  by  means  of  water,  alcohol,  or  acids. 
While  his  principle  was  fallacious  and  led  to  many  errors,  it 
nevertheless  contributed  to  the  displacement  of  the  complicated 
galenical  preparations  by  the  discovery  of  tinctures,  extracts,  and 
metallic  salts,  thereby  very  materially  simplifying  the  art  of  pre- 
scribing. He  believed  God  had  ordained  that  man  should  be 
guided  by  the  outward  forms  and  psychical  impressions  of  objects 
in  nature,  in  applying  remedies  in  disease ;  and  he  accordingly 


5<D  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

chose  his  remedies,  not  on  the  principle  of  their  action,  but  on 
their  resemblance  or  sympathetic  relations  to  the  patient  and  his 
disease.  In  this  wise  the  notorious  teachings  of  the  "  Signatures" 
were  revived,  which  under  different  names  had  swayed  the  minds 
of  men  in  ancient  times. 

On  the  strength  of  these  and  similar  earlier  notions  the  doc- 
trines of  "similia  similibus  curantur  "  were  at  a  later  day  adopted 


Fig.  27. 
PARACELSUS,  BOMBAST  VON  HOHENHEIM. 

(From  a  wood-cut  of  1563). 

by  Hahnemann,  as   a   fundamental   principle    in   homoeopathy. 
After  the  death  of  Paracelsus  his  adherents  rapidly  multiplied. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  two  antagonistic 
parties  lay  claim  to  the  true  science  of  medicine, — the  Galenists 
and  the  Paracelsists.  Their  animosity  grew  deeper  and  deeper, 
and  whilst  the  Thirty-years  War  was  devastating  Germany,  battle- 
cries  of  a  different  character  were  influencing  the  minds  of  con- 
tending parties  in  the  realm  of  ^Esculapius.  But  the  Galenico- 
Arabian  school,  which  had  succeeded  in  1643  at  Paris  in  having 
an  edict  issued  forbidding  the  use  of  metallic  salts,  was  finally 
vanquished.  The  medicinal  preparations  of  Paracelsus  (tinctures, 
extracts,  and  chemicals)  secured  recognition  in  pharmacy. 


Pharmacy  in  the  Seventeenth   Century. 


51 


Chemistry,  which  thus  far  had  been  subordinated  to  alchemistic 
hypotheses,  triumphantly  entered  the  laboratories  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  and  electuaries  like  mithridates  and  theriac  were 
supplanted  by  more  strictly  scientific  preparations.  The  pictur- 
esquely descriptive  methods  of  the  old  alchemists  were  not  suited 
to  the  more  simple  and  scientific  manipulations  instituted.  When 
chemistry,  therefore,  entered  the  service  of  medicine,  more  rational 


Fig.  28. 

PHARMACAL  LABORATORY,  1663. 

modes  of  expression  were  adopted.  One  Oswald  Troll,  physician 
to  the  Prifice  of  Anhalt,  made  himself  conspicuous  in  1608  by 
publishing  his  "Basilica  chymica,"  in  which  he  gives  very  intel- 
ligible directions  for  the  preparation  of  chemicals.  The  Parisian 
druggist,  Nicholas  Lemery,was  particularly  instrumental  in  paving 
the  way  for  this  innovation,  by  publishing  his  work,  "  Cours  de 
Chimie,"  in  1675.  This  work  evinced  a  lucid  style  unknown 
before  his  day,  which  soon  secured  for  it  a  translation  into  English, 
German,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  Latin. 


5- 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


The  principal  changes  connected  with  pharmacy  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  took  place  in  the  laboratory.  Some  of 
tttese  are  to  be  observed  in  Figure  28,  taken  from  a  religious  work 
of  1663.  On  the  portable  stove  is  a  distilling  apparatus,  now 
out  of  use,  which  consists  of  a  simple  glass  retort  and  helm 
or  cover,  known  as  an  "  alembic,"  from  "  anfii\  (a  cover)."  Pos- 
sibly, at  this  very  moment,  the  liquor  crani  humani  was  in 
process  of  distillation,  for  just  about  this  time  the  notion  pre- 
vailed that  all  medicines  for  man  must  be  obtained  out  of  the 
microcosmos  itself.  Nicolas  Lemery  says,  in  "  Cours  de  Chimie," 
that  the  officinal  human  skull,  "cranium  humanum,"  must  be 
procured  from  a  young,  vigorous,  and  but  recently  killed  and  as 
yet  unburied  man,  to  secure  all  the  "  principia  activa."  This 
distillate  was  good  for  the  "  falling  sickness,"  gout,  apoplexy, 
somnolency,  and  dysmenorrhoea.  It  was  a  diaphoretic  and  a 
powerful  antidote  for  poisons.  From  this  'it  would  appear  that 
the  old  fetichism  held  its  own  in  the  realm  of  therapeutics. 
In  1663  the  chemist  Joseph  Bechler,  in  his  "  Parnassus  Medicin- 
alis  Illustratus,"  enumerates  the  following  diseases  that  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  human  body  will  cure,  as  follows  : 

Powdered  human  bone  in  red  wine  will  cure  dysentery.  The  marrow  and 
oil  distilled  from  bone  is  good  for  rheumatism.  Prepared  human  skull  is  a  sure 
cure  for  the  falling  sickness.  Moss  grown  on  a  skull  is  an  haemostatic.  Mummy 
dissolves  coagulated  blood,  relieves  cough  and  pain  in  the  spleen,  and  is  also 
very  beneficial  in  flatulency  and  delayed  menstruation.  Human  fat,  when 
properly  rubbed  into  the  skin,  restores  weak  limbs.  The  wearing  of  a  belt 
made  of  human  skin  facilitates  labor  and  mitigates  its  pain.  Water  distilled 
from  human  hair  and  mixed  with  honey  promotes  the  growth  of  hair,"  etc. 

Fig.  29  (from  the  same  work  as  the  preceding  picture)  shows 
the  interior  of  an  apothecary's  shop.  It  does  not  present  any 
striking  improvement  over  those  of  the  previous  century,  though 
the  apothecaries  had  advanced  in  scientific  attainments  to  a 
marked  degree.  They  not  only  cultivated  chemistry,  but  also 
earnestly  entered  upon  the  study  of  botany.  From  the  total  lack 
of  system  in  botanical  works  of  the  day,  it  was  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  recognize  plants  by  their  mere  description.  Csesalpinus, 
professor  of  botany  at  Pisa,  had,  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  endeavored  to  classify  the  plant  world  in  fifteen  classes, 
according  to  their  flowers  and  fruits,  but  his  work  was  not  gen- 


Pharmacy  in  the  Seventeenth   Century. 


53 


erally  accepted,  and  the  necessity  of  illustrations  to  convey  cor- 
rect ideas  of  plants,  was  much  greater  than  at  the  present  day; 
The  botanical  works  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  therefore 
elaborately  supplied  with  wood-cuts.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, the  copper-print  takes  their  place.  The  first  large  work  of 
the  kind  illustrated  with  the  latter,  is  the  "  Hortus  Eystettensis," 
published  by  the  druggist,  Basilius  Besler,  in  1613.  The  illustra- 


Fig.  29. 
DRUG-STORE,  1663. 

tions  are  very  artistic  and  true  to  nature,  and  hardly  eclipsed  by 
modern  productions.  The  plants  are  classified  without  reference 
'either  to  their  structure  or  time  of  florescence.  The  author 
could  not,  however,  abstain  from  incorporating  his  portrait,  of 
which  Fig.  30  is  a  reduced  copy.  The  margin  bears  this  inscrip- 
tion : 

"  Basil.  Besler  Noricus,  artis  pharmaceuticse,  chymicae  amator  singularis 
rei  herbaria:  studiosus  aetatis  suae  51  anno  1612." 

This  would  indicate  that  he  was  born  in  1561.     From  the  annals 
of  the  Collegii  Pharmaceutici  it  appears  that  he  was  the  proprie- 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Fig.  30- 
A  PHARMACIST  OF  1613. 

tor  of  the  Haymarket  pharmacy  in  Nuremburg  from  1586  to 
1629,  when  he  died.  This  drug-store  was  discontinued  in  1792. 
After  the  death  of  Besler,  botany  was  extensively  studied  by  the 
druggists  of  Nuremburg.  To  this  end,  they  in  1668  associated 


Pharmacy  in  the  Seventeenth  Century.  55 

themselves  with  the  physicians,  and  thereafter  it  was  their  cus- 
tom to  make  botanical  excursions  in  common,  in  the  fall  and 
and  spring  of  the  year,  and  such  plants  which  were  found  to  pos- 
sess peculiar  medicinal  properties,  were  classified  and  described 
in  the  Annals  of  the  College  of  Physicians.  A  trip  of  this  kind 
was  called  an  "herbation."  These  herbations  ordinarily  wound 
up  with  a  banquet  in  a  neighboring  town,  or  in  a  club-room  in 
the  city.  These  gatherings  were  anything  but  dry  and  formal 
affairs,  as  the  surviving  specimens  of  their  poetry  revel  in  melo- 
dious rhyme. 

That  excessive  abstinence  did  not  injure  the  physician  and 
pharmacist  becomes  evident  from  the  magnitude  of  the  accom- 
panying bill  from  among  the  archives  of  the  Nuremburg  "  Col- 
legii  Pharmaceutici " 

To  MR.  WURFFBAIN'S  HERBATION,  May  16,  i(x)8,  at  which  nineteen  persons 
•were  present. 

2  Dishes  Stew Florin,  3.20 

2  Meat  pies,  12  chickens  and  veal "      7.40 

2  Dishes,  3  sour  tongues 1.48 

I  Dish,  8  Ibs.  fish "      2.40 

1  ««      6Geese "      3-36 

2  Dishes,  12  chickens "      4-4^ 

1  Dish,  2  Rabbits  and  10  wild  ducks '      4  14 

2  Dishes,  36  cheese  cakes. i   12 

2       "        Lobsters "      L44 

2       "        Hop  balls  1.36 

I  Westphalian  ham "      2.00 

Collation "      3-°° 

Wheat  and  rye  bread "         -46 

1  Barrel  of  Wine  and  I  pail "    24.48 

Waiter "        -45 

2  Dishes  of  asparagus l -44 

6  Plates  of  raddish "        -24 

Florin,  62.45 
CHRISTOPH  ZINNERER, 

Wine  Merchant. 

IV.  B.—  Together,  19  persons.  Makes  for  each  person,  4  Florin  and  4 
Kreuzer. 

These  gentlemen  evidently  knew  how  to  combine  business 
with  pleasure.  In  any  event  it  is  apparent  that  the  druggists  of 
Nuremberg,  at  least,  did  not  maintain  an  indifferent  attitude 


Pharmacy  in  tlie  Seventeenth   Centnrv.  57 

toward  the  natural  sciences,  and  that  they  contributed  a  very 
respectable  share  to  the  fundamental  material  upon  which,  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  Becher,  Stahl,  Lavoisier,  Linnaeus,  Cad- 
wallader  Colden,  Steele,  Priestley  and  others  reared  the  grand 
superstructures  of  chemistry  and  botany. 

The  education  of  the  pharmacist  was  still  largely  based  on 
'his  trade  experiences,  although  those,  who  adopted  the  profes- 
sion were  obliged  to  possess  some  knowledge  of  Latin.  The 
apprenticeship  lasted  from  five  to  six  years,  and  at  the  end  of 
this  time  the  apprentice  was,  by  his  master,  created  a  "journey- 
man." The  certificate  issued  on  such  occasions  was  of  great 
elegance,  frequently  elaborately  ornamented,  and  written  on 
parchment.  The  accompanying  illustration  is  a  reduced  copy 
of  one  of  those  issued  in  1743,  the  original  of  which  exists  in  the 
Germanic  Museum. 

The  journeyman  apothecary  was  usually  obliged  to  pass  an 
examination  before  the  Decanum  Collegii  at  the  time  of  applying 
for  a  situation.  The  duties  of  a  drug  clerk  were  embodied  in  the 
following  regulations  : 

Every  journeyman  apothecary  shall  take  an  oath  that  he  will  faithfully 
serve,  not  only  his  master,  but  also  the  members  of  the  community  at  large. 
That  he  will  prepare  all  medicines  "secundem  artem,"  and  of  pure  drugs, 
whether  they  be  such  as  are  annually  examined  by  the  authorities  or  not. 
That  he  will  dispense  no  poison,  opiate  or  emmenagogue  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  master,  or  endanger  the  life  of  any  one  by  his  carelessness.  That 
he  will  not  deliberately  change  a  physician's  prescription,  and  will  abstain  from 
excessive  indulgence  in  intoxicating  drinks,  and  will  at  all  times  set  a  good  ex- 
ample to  the  apprentice.  That  he  will  not  leave  the  shop  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  master,  and  particularly  not  absent  himself  at  night.  That  he  will ' 
be  devoted  to  his  master,  to  the  Visitatori  Medico,  and  to  each  of  the  doctors  of 
the  incorporated  Collegio  Medico.  He  shall  swear  that  he  will  do  all  this 
according  to  his  best  ability." 

On  assuming  control  of  a  pharmacy  as  a  proprietor,  he  was 
required  to  pass  a  supplementary  examination.  Apothecaries 
ranked  with  the  third  estate.  When,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
it  became  customary  for  apothecaries  in  Germany  to  take  an 
academic  course,  they  claimed  to  rank  with  the  learned  class, 
and  emphasized  this  by  wearing  "  caput-coats "  and  sabres. 
Tradespeople  were  not  allowed  to  wear  sabres,  hence  the  police 
interfered  and  suppressed  this  demonstration  of  their  budding 


58  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

greatness.  Thereupon  the  combined  apothecaries  of  Nuremburg 
petitioned  the  Council,  dilating  upon  the  injustice  of  the  action 
taken  against  them.  They  refer  to  the  fact  that  in  other  cities, 
Frankfurth,  Ulm,  Strassburg,  Augsburg  and  Vienna,  while  trades- 
people were  debarred  from  the  wearing  of  sabres,  apothecaries,, 
nevertheless,  are  allowed  to  do  so.  This  is  no  more  than  just, 
since  many  have  matriculated  at  universities,  some  have  attended 
academies,  and  others  have  even  graduated  as  doctors.  "  This 
injunction,"  they  further  say,  "  rests  all  the  more  heavily  upon 
us,  when  we  consider  that  our  profession  is  not  a  trade,  but  is  in 
reality  a  free  art." 

This  petition,  whose  results  are  not  recorded,  clearly  demon- 
strates that  the  social  position  of  the  pharmacists  then,  as  now, 
was  somewhat  disputed  in  Germany,  when  contrasted  with  that 
of  the  technical  practitioners,  the  learned  and  the  tradesmen. 
That  the  prominent  position  of  the  pharmacist  should  have  led 
satirists  to  attack  their  short-comings  was  but  natural.  Father 
"Abraham  a  Sancta  Clara,"  in  " Description  of  All  Professions- 
and  Trades,"  published  in  1699,  usually  deals  very  leniently  with 
them,  but  can  not  abstain  from  a  gentle  reprimand.  "  On  the 
whole,"  he  says,  "  the  druggists  can  not  be  too  highly  praised, 
and,  if  it  were  possible,  their  glory  should  be  written  in  lines  of 
potable  gold  which  they  know  how  to  prepare  so  skillfully. 
Their  daily  life  also  is,  for  the  most  part,  religious  and  faultless. 
Still  one  also  finds  some  who  have  many  '  scruples '  in  their  shops, 
but  never  allow  '  scruples '  to  interfere  in  their  dealings  with  their 
fellow  man.  They  boast  of  having  in  stock  all  kinds  of  Medica- 
menta,  such  as  Emollientia,  Resolventia,  Condensentia,  Aperi- 
entia,  Constipantia,  Attrahentia,  Repercutientia,  Abstergentia,. 
Expurgantia,  Attenuantia,  Illinentia,  Maturantia,  Conglutinantia, 
Cientia,  Expellentia,  etc.,  but  more  frequently  one  finds  there 
Fallentia ;  that  is,  superannuated  species,  that  are  more  harmful 
than  beneficial  to  the  patient.  This  results  from  a  habit  they 
have  of  buying,  at  a  cheap  price,  goods  that  have  been  kept  in 
stock  at  some  grocers  from  time  immemorial,  and  that  smell 
worse  than  Lazarus  in  his  grave.  Then  you  will  frequently  meet 
with  a  druggist  who  has  spent  his  entire  apprenticeship  behind 
the  mortar,  and  knows  nothing  about  any  '  crout '  (herb)  excepting 
it  be  the  '  sour '  kind,  which  he  will  recognize  when  it  is  cooked 


Pharmacy  in  the  Seventeenth   Centui 


59 


with  a  saddle  of  pork.  Then,  again,  he  will  make  more  mistakes 
than  the  children  of  the  prophet  in  the  days  of  Elisha,  who 
gathered  in  the  bitter  colocynth  in  place  of  healing  herbs." 

Moscherosch,  a  seventeenth  century  satirist,  displays  a  cyn- 
ically sarcastic  feeling  toward  the  medical  world.  In  a  book 
published  in  1643,  he  says  : 

"The  drug-shops  are  veritable  arsenals,  and  the  keepers 
thereof,  the  druggists,  are  gunsmiths  in  the  service  of  the 
Medicis."  "For,"  says  he,  "everything  you  find  in  their  shops 
remind  one  of  war  and  war-implements.  There  is,  in  the  first 
place,  the  mortar,  with  its  very  appropriate  name,  which  seems 
to  barricade  and  break  down  the  gates  of  the  human  system. 
The  syringe,  when  it  projects  the  enema,  may  be  likened  unto  a 
pistol.  The  pills  are  the  musket  balls.  The  Medici  stand  for 
grim  death  himself.  The  Medicamentia  purgantia  are  the  gen- 
uine fire  ef  purgatorium  ;  the  barbers  are  the  devils,  and  the 
drug -shop  is  a  diminutive  hades,  whilst  the  patient  represents 
the  poor,  lost  and  condemned  soul.  The  druggists  display  in 
their  shops  slips  of  paper  covered  with  strange  and  wonderful 
hieroglyphs,  that  neither  Vitzliputzli  or  Tlaloc  of  Mexico,  nor 
Vlastu  of  Cusco,  nor  Quetzaalcoale  of  Chalula,  nor  the  Chiappa 
Cariba,  nor  Tamaraca  of  Brazil,  nor  the  Deumus  of  Calechut, 
nor  the  Novientium  of  the  Alsacians  of  old,  nor  Mercurius  of 
Speyer,  nor  the  Natagia  of  the  Tartars  could  decipher.  The 
directions  on  these  papers  are  usually  preceded  by  '  Rec,'  which 
in  fact  stands  for  per  decem,  and  means  that  one  prescription 
out  of  ten  may  help,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  that  of  ten 
patients  one  may  escape.  They  are  called  patients  when  they 
get  into  the  hands  of  the  fraternity,  for  from  that  moment  they 
are  condemned  to  suffer  all  the  tortures  of  the  damned." 

"  Furthermore,  we  meet  with  the  word  'Ana,'  which  little  word 
we  derive  from  the  French  'Asne'  or  'Ane'  (ass,  fool),  but 
really  originates  from  Ana,  the  son  of  Zibeon,  who  invented  the 
mule  whilst  herding  his  father's  jackasses  in  the  desert,  and  what 
word  could  more  appropriately  serve  as  an  affix  to  a  prescription 
than  'Ana,'  since  it  takes  but  a  careless  ass  to  deprive  an 
honest  man  of  health  and  life.  And  then  come  the  '  Drachmae,' 
'  Unciae,'  '  Scrupuli,'  « Grana,'  which  have  the  shape  of  snakes, 
scorpions,  and  blind-worms,  or  at  least  are  possessed  of  their 


60  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

venom.  And  all  these  beautiful  things  so  comfort  the  patient 
that  his  soul  would  almost  take  flight  at  sight  of  them.  And  then 
they  apply  such  outlandish  Indian  and  Turkish  names  to  their 
simples  and  other  foul  herbs,  that  one  would  imagine  they 
intended  to  conjure  old  Satan  himself.  Such  names  for  instance 
as  Opoponach,  Tregoricarum,  Petroselinum,  Herba  Borith, 
Chamaespartion,  Diaphaeniconis,  Scolopendrion,  Diatrionpi- 
pereon,  Ophiostaphylon,  Zoophthalmon,  etc.,  which,  upon  close 
examination,  prove  to  be  every-day  parsley,  cornflower,  sanicle, 
houseleek,  tamarisk,  juniper,  red  white,  and  yellow  carrots,  and 
the  like.  They  call  beans  and  lentils  by  such  strange  names  to 
tempt  the  patient's  curiosity  and  induce  him  to  pay  an  extra 
price  for  the  same.  Their  mixtures  are  frequently  so  loathsome, 
as  to  taste  and  odor,  that  one  would  expect  to  see  the  worst  dis- 
ease leave  the  body  in  haste  to  escape  the  contamination.  The 
designation,  medical  composita,  is  another  term  to  the  point,  for 
when  your  druggist  mixes  pepper  and  mouse-dung,  and  runs  it 
through  the  mill,  he  may  dispense  it  with  a  clear  conscience,  for 
the  patient  is  paying  his  money  for  a  remedy  that  is  clearly  as 
composite  as  the  most  exacting  can  desire."  That  the  druggists 
should  have  haunted  Mosercsch  in  his  dreams  was  not  sur- 
prising. One  of  these  dreams  he  describes  as  follows  : 

"Then  there  followed  a  rabble  of  apothecaries  with  mortars, 
jingling  pestles,  suppositoria,  balneis  marise,  spatula,  syringes,  etc., 
which  were  all  loaded  with  deadly  missiles  and  powder.  They 
also  carried  many  boxes  and  bottles  labeled 'medicine,'  but  in 
reality  containing  poison  only." 

On  another  occasion  he  says  :  "After  considering  this  matter 

m  all  earnestness,  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  all  this 

nourning  and  lamenting  we   are  obliged  to  bestow  upon  the 

ad,  is  really  ushered  in  by  the  death-knell  of  the  pestles  on  the 

Is  of  the  apothecaries'  mortar,  and  only  ceases  with  the 
requiem  and  the  sounding  of  the  church  bell." 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in  Italy,  Zacchias,  during  this 

itury,  advanced  the  view  that  there  were  self-generated  poisons 

is  practically  the  view  at  present  held  concerning  the 

*  and  leucomaines  of  Selmi  and  Brieger.     In  England 

:.stence  of  the  Apothecaries  Company  seems  to  have  placed 

soc.al  status  of  the  apothecaries  on  a  pretty  well-defined 


Pharmacy  in  Hie  Seventeenth  Century  61 

basis.  The  apothecary  held  in  popular  estimation  and  social 
dignity  a  place  close  to  the  physician.  Physicians  to  the  king 
were  always  accompanied  by  a  staff  of  apothecaries.  At  the 
death-bed  of  Charles  II  both  appear,  and  the  administration  of 
a  volatile  preparation  from  a  human  skull  indicates  that  his 
disease  was  looked  upon  rather  as  "  falling  sickness"  than  apo- 
plexy. The  coffee-houses  of  this  period,  which  were  a  leading 


Fig.  36- 
WILLIAM  HARVEY. 

feature  of  its  social  life,  were  visited  by  both  physicians  and 
apothecaries  at  certain  times  of  the  day  under  circumstances 
which  show  that  both  were  regarded  as  members  of  a  common 
profession. 

William  Harvey,  the  demonstrator  of  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  was  a  staunch  friend  of  the  Apothecaries  Company,  and 
aided  it  with  Charles  I.  He  was  a  great  student  of  pharma-^ 
cology,  and  did  not  regard  the  use  of  animal  products  with  much 
favor.  He  is  often  mentioned  as  visiting  the  coffee  houses  in 
company  with  apothecaries. 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Pharmacy  in  English  speaking  America  during  the  seven- 
teenth century  was  largely  based  on  English  usages,  more  or  less 
modified  by  practices  derived  from  the  Indians.  As  a  result,  a 
great  many  quack  doctors  and  apothecaries  sprang  into  promi- 
nence. These  led  Virginia  to  attempt  the  legal  regulation  of 
those  who  charged  exorbitant  fees,  for  in  1636  a  law  was  passed 
regulating  the  fees  of  surgeons  and  apothecaries.  Prominent 
among  the  early  Virginian  colonists  who  were  at  once  surgeons 
and  apothecaries  was  Dr.  Edward  Heldon,  who  had  been  a  friend 
and  pall-bearer  of  Shakespere.  In  Massachusetts,  pharmacy 
was  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  Indians,  schoolmasters,  old 
women  and  clergymen.  The  last  were  generally  skilled  apoth- 
ecaries, who  had  learned  pharmacy  during  periods  of  persecution, 
and  practiced  it  for  ostensible  means  of  subsistence  while  preach- 
ing. The  Rev.  Jacob  Green  was  at  once  lawyer,  schoolmaster, 
miller,  distiller,  apothecary  and  physician.  The  witchcraft  epi- 
demic brought  the  practitioners  of  pharmacy  into  suspicion  as 
selling  poison  for  spells.  As  a  rule  the  general  merchants  sold 
drugs  to  the  apothecaries.  As  early  as  1647  Giles  Firmin,  of 
Boston,  had  firmly  established  himself  as  devoting  special  atten- 
tion to  pharmacy.  In  1646  the  first  store  distinctly  devoted  to 
pharmacy  was  opened  in  Boston  by  William  Davies. 

Under  the  Duke  of  York's  government,  the  province  of  New 
Jersey  made  an  attempt  to  regulate  the  practice  of  apothecaries 
in  1664,  which  provided  for  penalties  for  injury.  In  New  York 
there  was  a  tendency  exhibited  to  separate  pharmacy  from  medi- 
cine. The  quacks  were  exceedingly  numerous  in  the  city,  and 
attempts  were  made  to  punish  them  for  infraction  of  the  Duke's 
laws  passed  in  1664.  In  1689,  when  the  revolution  broke  out, 
one  work  held  in  esteem  in  the  practice  of  pharmacy,  was  Sal- 
mon's Herbal,  originally  printed  in  London  in  1676.  During 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and  early  eighteenth  century  it  was 
in  high  repute  among  American  pharmacists. 


Fig.  37- 
REPRESENTATION  OF  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  MATERIA  MEDICA. 

(63) 


(  With  glasses,  boxes,  round  me  stacked, 

And  instruments  together  hurled, 
Ancestral  lumber,  stuffed  and  packed- 
Such  is  my  world  !  and  what  a  world 


FAUST. 


Pharmacy  in  th*  3EIgttte««tI|  Century. 

(HE  contentions  of  the  Apothecaries  and  the  Sur- 
geons in  England  had  resulted  in  the  victory  of 
apothecaries  by  the  passage  of  Act  34,  Henry  VIII, 
in  1543,  which  protected  them  in  counter  prescrib- 
ing. James  I,  in  1608,  united  them  with  the 
grocers,  under  the  title  of  the  "Warden  and  Commonalty  of  the 
Mystery  of  Grocers."  To  do  this  he  revoked  the  charter  of  the 
old  Grocers  and  Apothecaries  Company.  In  1617  the  apothe- 
caries were  finally  separated  from  the  grocers,  and  the  Apothe- 
caries Company  was  created.  This  became  a  very  important 
body,  as  the  apothecary  was  now  regarded  as  a  practitioner  of  a. 
medical  specialty  rather  than  a  mere  merchant.  By  degrees  they 
gained  so  much  public  confidence,  and  began  to  take  so  active  a. 
part  in  the  practice  of  medicine,  that  they  had  the  audacity,  when 
preparing  an  electuary  or  bolus,  to  reason  on  the  propriety  of  its 
administration,  to  recommend  a  polypharmaceutical  physician  in 
preference  to  a  prescriber  of  simples.  To  crown  all,  they  began 
visiting  patients  themselves.  This  state  of  affairs  occasioned 
a  great  variety  of  publications.  The  coarse  wit  and  low  abuse 
which  abounded  in  these  publications,  are  an  evidence  of  the 
general  ignorance  of  the  contending  parties,  although  some  men 
of  eminence  might  occasionally  have  been  led  into  the  errors 
of  their  contemporaries. 

In  1665  a  curious  work  was  published  by  Dr.  Record,  "The 

Urinal  of  Physic."     This  contained  an  appendix,  "A  Treatise 

Concerning  the  Abuses  of  Physicians  and  Apothecaries."    This 

treatise  states  that  the  latter  "  actually  ventured  to  give  purges, 

(6s) 


9  CHRISIUBHORVS  S  QMMERHOFF 


Fig.  38- 
A  PHARMACIST,  A. 

(66) 


D.  1700. 


Pharmacy  in  the  Eighteenth  Centur\.  67 

without  the  advice  of  the  physician,"  which  was  in  those  days 
considered  a  serious  offense.  Every  year  added  to  the  list  of 
offenses.  They  were  accused  by  the  physicians  of  all  sorts  of 
misdeeds.  In  1696  the  College  of  Physicians  established  their 
own  dispensary.  The  accusations  continually  directed  against 
the  apothecaries  for  selling  bad  medicines,  furnished  an  excellent 
excuse  for  the  formation  of  a  joint-stock  company,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  laboratory  at  their  hall  for  their  own  use,  and 
for  supplying  members  with  drugs.  This  resulted  in  great  injury 
to  the  manufacturing  chemists  and  druggists ;  for,  not  content 
with  supplying  their  own  members,  they  obtained  the  orders  of 
government  for  medical  stores.  The  physicians,  on  the  other 
hand,  obtained  the  well  known  "Act  for  the  Better  Viewing  of 
Drugs,  etc.,  for  Ten  Miles  Around  London,"  which  gave  the 
apothecaries  great  offense,  and  occasioned  the  publication  of  a 
variety  of  squibs  on  both  sides. 

The  pharmacists  appear  to  have  placed  the  profession  on  a 
sounder  basis  at  this  time  preparatory  to  entering  on  a  more 
promising  era.  That  the  apothecary's  life  had  by  this  time 
experienced  a  vast  improvement  is  shown  by  the  more  elaborate 
furnishing  of  the  shops  and  laboratories. 

Figure  37  on  the  title  page  depicted  the  provinces  of  nature 
that  have  at  various  times  sustained  the  reign  of  ^sculapius. 
The  picture  is  taken  from  the  "  Lexicon  Pharmaceutico-Chymi- 
cum,"  by  J.  C.  Sommerhorf,  published  in  1701.  The  marked 
preponderance  of  scroll-work  at  once  stamps  it  as  the  product 
of  a  time  when  the  renaissance  style  had  degenerated  into  the 
pseudo-classical,  and  there  were  foreshadowings  of  the  rococo 
period.  Although  the  author,  as  pictured  in  Figure  38,  wears  a 
wig  of  very  respectable  proportions,  he  had  not  yet  adopted  the 
cue  which  became  a  craze  in  this  pseudo-classical  period, 
styled  by  the  Germans  "  Die  Zopfzeit "  (the  cue  or  tail  period). 
But  he  lived  to  see  King  Frederic  I  introduce  the  cue  into  the 
army.  The  "Lexicon"  was  prefaced  by  poetic  effusions  by 
SommerhofPs  friend.  The  burden  of  these  were  the  glorification 
of  himseM"  and  his  labors.  Despite  Sommerhoffs  undeniable 
indebtedness  to  similar  works  of  lesser  scope,  one  of  his  friends 
indulges  in  the  following  : 


(68) 


Pharmacy  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 


"  May  the  result  of  his  labors  and  pains  in  the  past, 
With  his  name,  like  pure  gold,  eternally  last." 

As  a  slight  contribution  to  the  realization  of  this  wish,  his 
portrait  is  here  introduced,  more  especially  as  it  serves  at  the 
same  time  to  give  an  excellent  idea  of  a  representative  pharma- 
cist of  the  eighteenth  century. 


Fig.  40. 

"STAR"  PHARMACY  AT  NUREMBURG,  A.  D.  i7Io. 

Fig.  39  depicts  the  court-pharmacy  at  Rastatt.  A  Latin 
inscription  beneath  the  original  reads  :  "  This  picture  was  dedi- 
cated to  his  most  gracious  master,  the  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  army,  Ludwig  William,  Count  of  Baden,  by  pharmacist  Joh. 
L.  Kellner."  Kellner,  who  bought  this  pharmacy  in  1697,  had 
doubtless  served  under  this  count  as  a  field-apothecary  during 
his  campaign  against  the  Turks,  since  a  field-pharmacy,  pre- 
served in  this  store  for  two  hundred  years,  has  recently  been 
turned  over  to  the  Germanic  Museum. 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Fig.  40  represents  the  old  "  Star  Pharmacy  "  at  Nuremburg  as 
it  appeared  before  its  removal  to  its  present  quarters  in  Binder 
street.  Much  of  the  old  furniture,  boxes  and  bottles  were 
brought  over  to  the  new  stand  at  the  time  of  the  removal  (1728), 
and  remain  to  the  present  day.  The  drawers  are  similar  to 


Fig.  41. 

DRUG-STORE  AT  KLATTAU,  A.  D.  1733. 

those  of  modern  construction.  The  bottles  and  containers  for 
fluids,  in  lieu  of  ground  stoppers,  are  furnished  with  a  zinc  cap, 
which  is  screwed  down  over  the  neck  of  the  bottles.  The  beau- 
tiful and  richly-painted  majolica  ware,  made  in  Italy  and  in  use 
in  Europe  from  the  sixteenth  century  to  the  middle  of  the  eight- 
eenth, is  to  be  seen  in  the  "  Star  Pharmacy  "  at  the  present  day. 
When  the  ornamental  majolica  ware  was  supplanted  by  sober 
white  china  the  pharmacies  were  deprived  of  much  of  their 
quaint  and  picturesque  appearance.  The  discovery  of  porcelain 


Pharmacy  in  the  Eighteenth   Century.  71 

by  Joh.  F.  Boettcher  caused  the  more  expensive  majolica  to  fall 
into  disuse.  Boettcher  began  his  chemical  studies  in  a  Berlin 
drug-store  laboratory  in  1701.  His  master,  "  Zorn,"  was  engaged 
in  alchemistic  studies,  and  Boettcher  had  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity for  learning  the  secrets  of  the  art.  His  remarkably  suc- 
cessful experiments  soon  gave  him  the  reputation  of  being  able, 
by  the  aid  of  some  secret  agency,  to  make  gold.  When  this 
rumor  reached  the  ears  of  King  Frederic  I  of  Prussia  he  ordered 
his  arrest,  but  Boettcher,  receiving  timely  warning,  escaped  to 
Saxony.  Fearing  that  the  fugitive  would  be  kidnapped  by  the 
Prussians,  who  had  demanded  his  extradition,  he  was  brought 
to  Dresden  for  greater  safety.  The  Saxon  ruler  himself  soon 
became  convinced  that  Boettcher  could  make  gold,  and  demanded 
the  secret.  Boettcher  refused  to  comply,  and  was  placed  under 
strict  surveillance,  and  practically  imprisoned.  He  was  coaxed 
by  his  guards  to  prosecute  his  experimental  search  for  the 
philosopher's  stone,  and,  in  1704,  accidentally  discovered  brown 
jasper,  and,  in  1709,  white  porcelain.  The  latter,  in  1710, 
became  a  staple  manufacture  of  Meissen  under  the  direction  of 
Boettcher.  From  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  in 
general  use  in  the  pharmacies. 

Figure  41  shows  the  interior  of  a  drug-store  at  Klattau, 
Bohemia.  The  present  proprietor  of  the  store  relates  that  the 
pharmacy  was  established  by  the  Jesuits  in  1733,  who  controlled 
their  own  artisans,  and  introduced  the  same  style  of  architecture 
as  that  in  vogue  in  their  churches.  At  the  time  of  their  expul- 
sion in  1810  the  business  went  into  private  hands.  The  peculiar 
scroll-like  embellishments  of  the  rococo  period  are  absent. 
This  work,  therefore,  belongs  to  the  period  immediately  pre- 
cedent, styled,  as  before  mentioned,  the  "Zopfzeit"  period. 

Figure  42  (from  "A  Text-book  of  the  Apothecaries  Act,"  by 
Karl  Hagen,  1778)  represents  the  laboratory  of  the  court-phar- 
macy at  Koenigsberg.  The  fire-place  and  distilling  apparatus 
are  particularly  conspicuous,  and  in  their  construction  approach 
modern  appliances.  Karl  Hagen,  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  superintended  this  laboratory,  and  was 
professor  of  physics  and  chemistry  at  the  university.  Beside 
the  "Text-book  of  the  Apothecaries  Art,"  of  which  eight  editions 
were  published,  he  wrote  "The  Elements  of  Experimental 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Chemistry,"  and  "The  Fundamental  Principles  of  Chemistry." 
Hagen,  therefore,  exerted  a  great  influence  in  the  education  of 
the  pharmacists  of  his  time.  The  wide  experience  evident  in 
these  works  was  no  doubt  gathered  by  him  in  the  laboratory 
here  pictured. 

The  practice  of  pharmacy  in  the  eighteenth  century  was  by 
no  means  as  remunerative  as  has  been  asserted.  Its  field  was  as 
much  invaded  by  grocers,  spice  dealers,  distillers,  etc.,  as  it 


Fig.  42. 
LABORATORY  OF  COURT  PHARMACY  AT  KOENIGSBERG,  A.  D.  1778. 

now  is  by  notion  dealers,  etc.  The  archives  of  the  Nuremburg 
Collegii  Pharmaceutici  are  encumbered  with  memorials  respect- 
ing the  grievances  of  the  apothecaries  and  the  replies  of  the 
accused  thereto.  These  memorials  are,  as  a  rule,  only  a  reca- 
pitulation of  similar  complaints  cited  in  preceding  centuries. 
In  some  instances  the  druggists  suffered  pecuniary  losses  from 
causes  entirely  of  their  own  creation.  One  was  the  habit  of 
sending  New  Year's  presents  to  physicians  and  to  customers, 
which  had  grown  to  such  proportions  that  the  government  inter- 
fered. The  Anspach  Gazette,  November  23,  1796,  contains  this 
announcement : 

Since. the  practice  among  apothecaries  of  giving  New  Year's  gifts  to  phy- 
sicians and  patients  has  been  extensively  abused,  it  should  forthwith  be  discon- 
tinued. Apothecaries  are  therefore  forbidden  under  severe  penalty  to  continue 
this  destructive  and  demoralizing  practice.  This  order  is  herewith  made  known 
to  the  general  public.  THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE  AND  WAR! 

Nov.  1 6,  1796. 


Pharmacy  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  73 

Although  the  eighteenth  century  pharmacists,  more  than  ever 
before,  were  intent  upon  surrounding  themselves  with  a  scientific 
halo,  and  dubbed  their  apprentices  "  Discipuli,"  and  the  jour- 
neyman clerks  "  Subjecti,"  their  education  was  still  rudimentary, 
and  but  few  possessed  scientific  attainments.  A  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  natural  sciences  was  not  demanded,  and  what  they 
knew  was  limited  to  what  could  be  acquired  in  every-day  experi- 
ences. The  renowned  Fr.  Hoffman,  who  was  professor  at  Halle 
from  1694  to  1743,  in  defining  what  knowledge  the  apothecary 
should  possess,  says  :  "  The  apothecary  should  know  that  an 
acid  and  an  alkali,  when  brought  in  contact,  will  effervesce.  It 
will  suffice  if  he  but  know  the  effect,  although  he  may  be  igno- 
rant of  the  cause."  Unflattering  as  Hoffman's  assertion  may 
seem,  he  was  in  the  main  correct  in  his  premises.  The  learned 
apothecary,  Trommsdorf,  of  Erfurt,  takes  a  similar  view  of  the 
state  of  pharmacy  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Speaking  of  his 
apprenticeship,  he  says  :  "  Rarely  did  I  find  men  that  approached 
my  ideal.  More  frequently,  on  the  other  hand,  I  met  with  in- 
competency  and  slovenliness.  Seldom,  even,  did  I  find  a  proper 
appreciation  of  the  pharmacist's  important  calling  by  the  gen- 
eral public.  Pharmacy  was  almost  universally  looked  upon  as 
a  trade,  and  the  pharmacist  as  a  mere  tradesman.  This  fact 
pained  me  the  more,  the  firmer  I  became  convinced  that  phar- 
macy is  a  worthy  branch  of  the  natural  sciences,  and  its  devo- 
tees deserve  the  honors  so  freely  bestowed  on  workers  in  other 
departments  of  the  sciences.  But  how  few  of  the  druggists 
themselves  were  permeated  by  the  importance  of  their  calling  !" 

The  recognition  of  this  deplorable  state  of  affairs  induced 
Trommsdorf  to  employ  all  his  powers  in  the  furtherance  of  the 
art  of  pharmacy.  In  1794  he  published  a  pharmacal  journal, 
and  in  1795  founded  a  chemico-pharmacal  institute,  which  met 
"  a  long  felt  want,"  since  the  universities,were  not  yet  supplied 
with  laboratories  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  pharmacists. 
The  studies  in  this  institute  embraced  logic,  mathematics, 
physics,  botany,  zoology,  mineralogy,  chemistry  and  pharmacy. 
Thus  an  opportunity  was  offered  for  the  study  of  the  branches 
of  pharmacy  which  are  at  the  present  day  a  part  of  the  univer- 
sities. The  result  of  this  innovation  was  to  lift  pharmacy  from 
its  humble  sphere  and  elevate  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  scientific 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


profession.  Many  apothecaries  of  the  eighteenth  century  gained 
renown  in  the  field  of  the  sciences,  in  evidence  of  which  the 
names  of  Ehrhart,  Funk,  Hudson,  Geoffrey,  Marggraf,  Scheele, 
Weigleb,etc.,etc.,  may  be  cited.  They  belonged  to  the  apothe- 
cary's class,  and  will  always  be  remembered  in  connection  with 
chemistry  and  botany.  The  question,  at  times  propounded, 
whether  these  men  acquired  their  prominence  because  of  their 
having  been  pharmacists,  or  in  spite  of  or  independent  of  this 
fact,  can  hardly  be  answered  in  a  manner  which  will  redound  to 
the  credit  of  pharmacy. 

Dr.  Dover,  the  inventor  of  Dover's  powder,  had  been  edu- 
cated as  an  apothecary,  and  was  a  great  friend  and  pupil  of 
Sydenham.  He  began  practice  in  Bristol,  England,  but  despite 
his  drug-store  adjunct  to  practice,  did  not  make  a  great  financial 
success.  Some  merchants  fitted  out  privateers,  which  were  very 
successful  in  taking  Spanish  ships.  He  sailed  with  them  as 
physician,  and  on  February  2,  1708,  visited  Juan  Fernandez, 
where  he  found  and  brought  away  Alexander  Selkirk,  the  origi- 
nal of  "Robinson  Crusoe."  In  1711  he  began  practice  in 
London,  and  apothecaries  and  patients  consulted  him  at  the 
Jerusalem  Coffee  House.  The  originator  of  Fowler's  solution, 
Thomas  Fowler,  of  Stratford,  was  born  in  1736.  He  also  had 
been  educated  as  an  apothecary.  Dr.  Steer,  the  introducer  of 
opodeldoc,  a  native  of  England,  was  a  prominent  apothecary  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 

In  Ireland,  during  this  period,  the  metrology  was  exceedingly 
confused  ;  troy  weight  and  avoirdupois  were  both  used  by  apoth- 
ecaries, and  many  complaints  resulted. 

The  social  status  of  the  pharmacist  in  some  of  the  American 
provinces  during  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  is  shown 
by  the  enumeration  of  Jas.  Tagree  among  the  prominent  citizens 
of  New  York  City,  in  1703,  as  an  apothecary.  The  only  other 
legally  recognized  apothecary  in  the  province  of  New  York,  for 
a  number  of  years,  was  Governor  Hunter,  who  presided  over  the 
destinies  of  the  colony  for  the  decade,  ending  1719.  The  Van 
Burens  soon  after  began  the  practice  of  pharmacy  in  New  York. 
They  had,  as  early  as  1706,  practised  pharmacy  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  and  Philadelphia.  Their  preparation,  "The  Red 
Drop,"  retained  its  reputation  late  into  the  nineteenth  century. 


Pharmacy  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.  75 

John  Johnstone  practiced  pharmacy  at  Perth  Amboy  early  in 
the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  very  active  in  public  service, 
and  occupied  several  important  positions.  Some  of  his  descend- 
ants still  continue  to  practice  pharmacy. 

The  first  patent  medicine  was  called  "Tuscarora  Rice,"  sold 
as  a  "  consumption  cure,"  by  a  Mrs.  Masters,  in  1711,  and  had  a 
wide-spread  reputation.  She  erected  a  large  manufactory,  and 
probably  inaugurated  the  patent  medicine  trade  in  the  United 
States.  Indian  medicine  men  of  the  "Sagwa"  variety,  and 
other  traveling  quacks,  perambulated  the  country,  selling  worth- 
less decoctions.  These  were  stopped  in  New  Jersey,  in  1772,  by 
a  law  passed  at  the  instance  of  the  State  Medical  Society  which 
had  been  established  in  1766.  This  law  prohibited  practice  by 
mountebank  doctors,  or  the  sale  of  drugs  or  medicines  by  them. 
Under  this  act  most  of  the  drug-stores  were  run  by  licensees. 
The  general  merchants  sold  the  crude  drugs,  and  not  infrequently 
came  into  conflict  with  the  law. 

Among  the  prominent  practitioners  of  pharmacy  in  this  cen- 
tury was  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Dickinson,  of  Elizabethtown,  N.  J., 
who  wrote  on  the  preparation  of  the  ordinary  vegetable  drugs  of 
America  for  medicinal  use.  Dr.  Lawrence  Vanderveer,  of  Mill- 
stone, N.  J.,  was  another  pharmacist  who  gained  celebrity  by  his 
introduction  of  scutellaria  into  medicine.  Mr.  Robert  Eastburn, 
of  New  Brunswick,  published  a  pharmacal  work  entitled  a 
"Collection  of  Receipts,"  in  1755. 

Later  in  the  century,  the  mental  activity  consequent  on  the 
American  Revolution  resulted  in  the  publication  of  the  works  of 
Schoepf  and  Barton  on  Materia  Medica,  and  the  publication,  in 
1778,  of  an  army  pharmacopoeia  under  the  auspices  of  Dr.  Tilton, 
Of  Delaware.  Salmon's  "  Herbal,"  the  Dispensatory  of  Duncan, 
the  Materia  Medica  of  Lewis,  long  continued  to  be  the  chief 
text  books.  The  influence  of  Salmon's  "  Herbal"  was  undoubt- 
edly stimulating  to  the  study  of  botany.  From  it  Dr.  Cadwallader 
Golden,  the  pharmacist-physician  governor  of  New  York,  received 
the  stimulus  which  led  to  his  botanical  studies,  afterward  so  com- 
mended by  Linnaeus. 

That  there  was  great  enthusiasm  manifested  in  the  study  of 
the  indigenous  vegetable  materia  medica  is  obvious  from  the 
writings  of  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  who  anticipates  that  therefrom 


7» 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


will  result  cures  of  many  diseases.     These  botanical  studies,  in 
no  small  degree,  brought  about  the  disuse  of  the  lancet. 

The  merchants  who  sold  crude  drugs  were  much  addicted  to 
adulteration,  and  one  of  them,  Carnes  of  New  York,  is  stated  by 
Dr.  Francis  to  have  sold  colored  sawdust  for  rhubarb. 


(From  Keith's  "  Virginia,'"  1738). 

Cod-liver  oil  began  to  assume  a  very  prominent  part  in  the 
armamentarium  of  American  pharmacy  in  this  century. 


Ancient  ^efiffing 


Fig.  43- 
(From  a  Copper-Print,  i6th  Century). 


(77) 


;Now  'tis  evaporated  and  invisible, 
And  upward  flies,  whence  its  airy  source, 
Then  to  the  earth  returns  again, 
That  first  unto  it  gave  birth. 
Even  so  we  live  and  die, 
Now  bound,  and  now  as  vapor  fly. " 

— GOETHE. 


Ancient  Distillin 


[ISTILLATION—  the  process  by  which  volatile  sub- 
stances are  separated  from  those  of  a  more  fixed 
character  —  does  not  appear  to  have  been  much 
practiced  by  the  early  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
earliest  reference  made  to  it  we  trace  to  Synesius, 
who,  about  410  B.  C.,was  Bishop  of  Ptolemais.*  The  Arabian 
Galen,  "Rhazes  of  Bagdad,"  likens  the  process  of  distillation  to 
the  condition  in  nasal  catarrh.  "  The  stomach,"  he  says,"  is  the 
kettle,  the  head  is  the  cap,  and  the  nose  is  the  conducting  and 
cooling  tube,  from  which  the  product  of  distillation  drips."' 
From  this  we  learn  that  the  public  must  have  been  quite  familiar 
with  the  process,  and,  in  fact,  we  find  it  frequently  referred  to  in 
Arabian  medical  works. 

In  the  thirteenth  century,  Furno  of  Basel,  Thaddaus  of  Flor- 
ence, arid  Arnoldus  of  Villanova,  were  largely  instrumental  in 
introducing  the  products  of  distillation  into  the  occidental  ma- 
teria  medica,  which  effort  was  particularly  successful  in  the  case 
of  brandy  and  alcohol.  These  were  very  soon  extensively  used 
as  a  beverage,  so  that  about  the  year  A.  D.  1500,  laws  were  deemed 
necessary  in  several  European  states  to  counteract  by  legal  re- 
strictions the  growing  tendency  to  over-indulgence.  The  law  of 
Nuremburg  decreed  that  brandy  should  neither  be  sold  in  shops 
nor  in  the  open  market-place  on  Sundays  or  other  holidays. 

The  increasing  consumption  of  spirits,  and  the  consequent 
multiplication  of  distilled  medicinal  waters,  are  abundant  proof 
that  the  art  of  distilling  had  made  considerable  progress  in  the 


*  Kopp,  History  of  Chemistry. 


(79) 


go  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

fifteenth  century.  Hieronymus  Brunschwyck  gives  us  a  very  lucid 
description  of  the  apparatus  in  use  in  his  day,  in  "  The  New 
Book  on  the  Art  of  Distilling,'-  and  "  The  Art  of  Distilling  Com- 
posite Things,"  both  richly  illustrated  with  wood-cuts.  We  have 
drawn  largely  on  these  books  for  our  information. 

The  first  book  was  published  on  the  8th  of  May,  1500,  and 
the  other  a  few  years  later.  At  that  time  the  word  "  distil,"  "  to 
drip,"  had  a  wider  application  than  at  the  present  day. 

What  in  modern  times  is  known  as  maceration,  digestion, 
filtration,  percolation  and  extraction,  were  all  embraced  under 
the  head  of  distillation.  Before  the  distillation  proper  of  any 
substance  was  attempted,  it  was  first  subjected  to  a  process  of 
digestion  in  a  glass  retort  for  purposes  of  solution  and  softening. 
A  great  variety  of  methods  were  employed  to  obtain  the  requi- 
site degree  of  warmth.  One  primitive  method  is  thus  described  : 
"In  a  convenient  locality,  preferably  in  a  cellar,  a  pit  five  feet 
deep  was  excavated.  This  was  partially  filled  with  a  layer  of 
unslaked  lime  ;  upon  this  followed  a  layer  of  horse  manure, 
whereupon  the  vessel  with  the  material  was  brought  into  place, 
and  .the  whole  covered  up  with  another  liberal  supply  of  horse 
dung.  The  lime  was  then  slaked  by  the  pouring  on  of  lukewarm 
water,  thereby  establishing  a  sort  of  fermentation,  and  an  elevated 
temperature,  which  was  maintained  for  several  days,  whereupon 
the  substances  in  the  pit  were  renewed,  and  the  process  repeated 
as  often  as  found  expedient."  The  simpler  method  of  digesting 
matter  by  the  aid  of  the  sun  or  heat  from  a  stove  was  also  resorted 
to.  To  augment  the  sun's  heat  concave  mirrors  were  employed. 
The  digesting  retort  was  placed  between  one  of  these  and  the 
sun,  so  as  to  receive  the  direct  rays,  and  also  the  reflected  heat 
from  the  mirror. 

Other  peculiar  methods,  resorted  to  in  the  Middle  Ages  for 
securing  an  elevated  temperature  in  the  process  of  digestion,  con- 
sisted in  placing  the  vessels  in  ant-hills,  in  bread,  ashes,  in  a 
water-bath,  etc.  For  digesting  in  bread,  the  vessel  was  packed 
in  dough,  placed  in  an  oven  and  baked  like  ordinary  bread. 
The  forms  of  the  vessels  employed  were  as  varied  as  the  methods 
for  securing  the  required  elevation  of  temperature.  Particular 
stress  was  laid  upon  the  importance  of  choosing  such  vessels  as 
favored  the  return  of  the  condensed  vapors  to  the  bottom  of  the 


Ancient  Distilling  Apparatus. 


8 1 


vessel,  so  that  the  fluids  could  again  penetrate  the  macerating 
substance,  and  thus  repeatedly  make  the  circuit. 

The  following  illustrations,  taken  from  the  works  of  Brunsch- 
wyck,  show  us  a  number  of  these  vessels  : 


Fig.  44. 
i,  VIAL,  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY. 


5,  CUCURBITE. 


Fig.  44  a,  was  known  as  a  vial.     Fig.  44  b,  was  called  a  cucur- 
bite  from  its  resemblance  to  the  shape  of  a  gourd. 


Fig.  45.— URINALS. 


Figs.  45  a,  b  and  c,  represent  a  variety  of  urinals.     Fig.  46 
a  and  6,  are  simple  circulatories ;  c,  a  circulatory  with  lateral 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


. 

beak ;  d,  a  double  circulatory,  and  e,  a  pelican  circulatory,  with 
two  conducting  tubes  for  the  returning  fluid. 


d 

Fig.  46  a,  b,  e,  rfand  e.— rClRCULATORlES. 

The  funnels  of  the  Middle  Ages  were,  likewise, 
somewhat  differently  shaped  than  at  present,  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  Brunschwyck  says  they  were 
used  to  separate  oil  and  water  and  for  conveying  acids 
from  one  vessel  into  another.  They  were  probably 
not  used  in  the  clarifying  of  liquids,  since  the  process 
of  filtering  through  paper  had  not  been  introduced.  In 
his  time  liquids  were  clarified  by  running  them  through 
.a  linen  or  woolen  bag,  or  they  were  "  distilled  per 


V 


Ancient  Distilling  Apparatus. 


Fig.  47^- 
THE  ALEMBIC. 


filtram."  This  process  consisted  in  placing  the  liquid  to  be 
clarified  in  a  bowl  or  pan,  and  connecting  it  with  a  vessel 
on  a  lower  plane  by  means  of  a  strip  of  felt  or  woolen  cloth. 
By  virtue  of  the  capillary  action  of  these  bodies,  the  fluid  was 


Ancient  Distilling  Apparatus.  85 

carried  over  and  dripped  into  the  lower  vessel.  In  the  case 
of  very  volatile  substances  two  retorts  were  used,  the  beak  of  the 
lower  one  being  cemented  into  that  of  the  higher  one,  see  Fig. 
47«.  The  liquid  was  then  carried  over  by  the  strip  of  felt  which 
had  previously  been  properly  adjusted  on  the  inside  of  the  retorts. 

The  most  ancient  form  of  distilling  apparatus  was  probably 
the  alembic,  from  the  Greek,  meaning  "  a  cover ;"  and  the 
Arabian  article  "  al,"  originally  applied  to  the  head  of  a  still 
only.  The  alembic  was  placed  on  an  earthen  vessel  or  glass 
cucurbite,  and  cemented  to  the  latter,  and  after  a  receiver 
had  been  adjusted  to  the  beak  of  the  alembic,  this  primitive 
distilling  apparatus  was  complete  in  all  its  details.  Fig.  47^. 

In  Fig.  48  we  see  one  of  these  apparatus  in  use,  placed  on  an 
ordinary  distilling  stove.  Although  the  distillation  is  pictured 
as  taking  place  in  a  garden,  it  is  not  "probable  that  it  was  prac- 
ticed in  the  open  air,  exposed  to  wind  and  weather.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  artists  of  the  Middle  Ages  not  only  sought  to 
emphasize  the  minutest  details  of  the  objects  pictured,  but  they 
also  attempted  to  demonstrate  their  association  with  the  objects 
in  nature,  by  placing  these  in  juxtaposition,  no  matter  how  much 
out  of  place  the  one  or  the  other  might  be,  and  without  appar- 
ently ever  being  aware  of  the  impropriety  of  such  an  arrangement. 
The  plant  world  was,  as  we  have  seen,  the  main  source  of  medici- 
nal waters,  and  in  the  distillation  of  the  latter  women  frequently 
took  part.  Hence  the  artist  places  the  apparatus  in  a  garden  in 
which,  beside  the  two  apothecaries,  are  two  women  engaged  in 
gathering  plants ;  all  these  details  serving  to  indicate  that  the 
object  of  the  distillation  was  the  gaining  of  medicinal  waters. 
The  glass  still-heads  known  as  alembics  were  made  in  a  variety 
of  styles. 

The  early  alembic  had  the  great  fault  that  it  allowed  the 
vapors  that  condensed  on  its  surface  to  flow  back  into  the 
vessel  too  readily,  thus  greatly  retarding  the  process,  Fig.  490. 
This  defect  was  remedied  by  making  a  groove  on  the  inside 
wall,  and  near  the  neck  of  the  alembic,  Fig.  49^  with  which  the 
opening  into  the  beak  was  continuous.  Thus  the  condensed 
liquid  collected  in  this  groove  and  was  conducted  to  the  beak, 
toward  which  the  groove  was  slightly  inclined. 

The  lack  of  a  cooling  apparatus  was  a  very  serious  obstacle 


86 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


to  a  successful  and  profitable  distillation,  on  account  of  the 
escape  of  large  quantities  of  uncondensed  vapors.  To  obviate 
this  in  a  measure,  and  to  gain  a  larger  cooling  surface,  the  alem- 
bics were  constructed  in  the  shape  of  tall  cones  (see  Fig.  49^), 
and  were  made  of  glazed  earthenware,  copper,  zinc  or  lead,  and 


Fig.  49.— ALEMBICS. 

placed  over  shallow  vessels  of  like  material.     This  style  was 
mostly  used  for  the  distilling  of  water. 

The  Middle  Age  retorts  were,  on  account  of  their  impractica- 

e  shape,  adapted  only  to  such  liquids  that  during  ebullition 

i  not  escape  through  the  beak.     Their  use  for  distilling  pur- 

es  was  therefore  limited,  and  found  application  mostly  for  the 

distillation  per  filtram,"  before  described,  and  for  purposes  of 


Ancient  Distilling  Apparatus.  87 

digestion.  To  render  the  distilling  vessels,  which  were  in  greater 
part  made  of  glass,  more  resisting  to  the  heat  of  an  open  fire, 
they  were  encased  in  a  mass  composed  of  clay,  hemp-hatchel, 
horse-dung  and  wine.  This  mass  was  applied  to  the  depth  of 
one-half  inch  and  allowed  to  dry.  If,  in  spite  of  this  precaution, 
the  vessel  should  crack,  a  cloth,  spread  with 
a  putty  of  red-lead,  lime,  flour  and  the  white 
of  egg,  was  placed  over  the  fissure.  The 
cloth  used  for  this  purpose  was  previously 
saturated  with  salt  water  and  white  of  egg  to 
render  it  fire-proof.  For  cementing  the  still- 
heads  to  the  container  and  the  receiving 
vessel  to  the  former,  a  variety  of  pastes  were 
in  use.  When  a  high  degree  of  temperature 
was  required,  the  so-called  Lutum  sapientise 

Middle  Age  Retort. 

was  used.  This  cement  was  composed  of 
clay,  horse-dung,  ground  brick,  ground  iron,  salt  water  and  white 
of  egg.  When  a  lesser  temperature  sufficed, 
a  paste  composed  of  starch  and  soaked  paper 
was  applied. 

Common  retorts  served  as  receivers,  but 
in  case  of  very  volatile  substances,  vessels 
with  a  lateral  beak  were  substituted  (see 
Fig.  50).  In  consequence  of  the  constantly 
increasing  consumption  of  spirits,  the  small 
glass  apparatus  could  no  longer  supply  the 
demand,  and  gradually  the  copper  kettles, 
not  very  unlike  our  modern  apparatus  (Fig.  Fig.  50. 

51),  came  into  use.  To  condense  the  vapors,  the  still-head  was 
made  in  the  shape  of  a  so-called  "  Moor's  head,"  being  sur- 
mounted by  a  copper  mantel  which  was  filled  with  cold  water. 

For  the  purpose  of  rectification,  the  spirit  was  repeatedly  and 
slowly  distilled  through  a  head  without  the  customary  furrow, 
the  lower  orifice  of  the  head  having  been  plugged  with  a  sponge 
saturated  in  oil.  The  water,  which  was  vaporized  simultaneously 
with  the  alcohol,  was  condensed  on  the  sponge,  whilst  the  alcohol 
vapors  passed  through  the  pores  of  the  sponge,  and  after  being 
condensed  in  the  cooling  apparatus,  escaped  into  the  receiver. 
To  obtain  an  alcohol  of  a  still  higher  percentage,  an  apparatus 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


is  described  in  Figure  52,  which  maybe  considered  as  a  fore- 
runner of  those  in  use  at  the  present  day.  Here  we  see  the  retort 
connected  with  a  worm-like  tube  that  repeatedly  passes  through 
a  larger  upright  tube  filled  with  cold  water.  The  vapor,  as  it 


Fig. 

DISTILLING  APPARATUS. 

rises  in  this  tube,  experiences  an  insufficient  refrigeration,  and 
the  more  volatile  alcohol,  finding  its  way  to  the  remotest  coil, 
finally  condenses  and  reaches  the  receptacle  ;  whereas  the  water, 
which  condenses  earlier,  finds  its  way  back  to  the  kettle  or  retort. 
That  Basilius  Valentinus  had,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  advised 
the  use  of  tartrate  of  potassa  for  the  dehydration  of  alcohol,  is 


Ancient  Distilling  Apparatus. 


89 


no  doubt  known  to  the  reader,  and  needs  but  incidentally  to  be 
recalled  here.  An  exact  determination  of  its  strength  was  im- 
possible before  the  discovery  of  the  alcoholometer  at  the  close 


Fig.   52- 
IMPROVED  DISTILLING  APPARATUS. 

of  the  eighteenth  century.  Brunschwyck  thought  he  had 
obtained  spirits  of  the  highest  possible  percentage,  when  a  linen 
cloth  saturated  with  it  would  also  be  destroyed  after  the  alcohol 
had  been  ignited  and  entirely  consumed.  In  case  of  very 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


hydrous  alcohol  the  remaining  water,  of  course,  protected  the 
linen  from  the  flame.  Another  test  consisted  in  dropping  olive 
oil  into  the  spirits ;  if  the  oil  sank  to  the  bottom,  the  alcohol  was 
proof.  Since  the  specific  gravity  of  olive  oil  is  0.915  an  alcohol 
of  sixty  per  cent,  met  this  requirement.  In  place  of  the  linen 
test,  we  later  find  mention  of  the  powder  test.  Powder  saturated 
with  alcohol  of  proper  strength  should  burn  with  a  puff  after  the 


Fig-  53- 

DISTILLING  APPARATUS,  1560. 

alcohol  had  been  consumed.  Albertus  Magnus  has  called  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  distillates  from  metal  apparatus  frequently 

:arry  with  them  metallic  impurities,  and,  based  on  this  authority, 
Brunschwyck  also  warns  against  the  indiscriminate  use  of  such 
apparatus.  The  Nuremburg  apothecary  ordinance  of  June  7, 

555»  entirely  forbids  their  employment  in  drug-stores.     This 

order  was,  however,  soon  found  to  overreach  itself  as  applied  to 

pharmacy,  and  in  the  ordinances  of  1592  we  find  no  more  mention 

it      In   the    Middle  Ages  distilling  by  druggists    had   been 


Ancient  Distilling  Apparatus. 


limited  to  medicinal  waters,  but  when  in  the  sixteenth  century 
they  entered  upon  the  distilling  of  more  volatile  subtances,  they 
felt  the  need  of  adopting  the  cooling  apparatus  already  in  use  in 
distilleries.  The  books  of  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century 
that  treat  on  this  subject,  show  that  just  about  this  time  the  great- 
est improvements  were  being  made  in  the  line  of  cooling  appli- 


Fig.  54- 

"The  Distiller's  Book,"  by  G.  Ryff,  1567,  furnishes  a  number 
of  illustrations  bearing  on  this  subject.  In  Fig.  53,  the  cap  has 
two  conducting  pipes  that  pass  obliquely  through  a  barrel  filled 
with  water.  Ryff  acknowledges  that  for  distilling  larger  quantities 
this  apparatus  is  entirely  unsatisfactory,  and  in  its  place  recom- 
mends the  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  54.  Fig.  55  represents  an 
apparatus  used  in  France  at  this  time.  In  connection  with  the 
renewal  of  the  water  in  the  cooling  apparatus,  the  fact  that  the 
warmer  water  rises  to  the  surface  and  the  cooler  water  collects 


92 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


in  the  lower  part  of  the  vessel,  appears  to  have  been  entirely  over- 
looked or  was  not  understood.     In  comparing  the  apparatus  here 


Fig.  55- 

APPARATUS  IN  USE  IN  FRANCE  IN  1560. 

pictured  with  those  of  modern  construction,  we  therefore  miss  in 
the  former  the  afferent  tube  for  conveying  the  cold  water  to  the 
base  of  the  tub,  and  the  effer- 
ent tube  for  conveying  away 
the  heated  surface-water.  To 
secure,  by  one  and  the  same 
operation,  both  the  pure  or 
more  volatile  and  the  more 
sluggish  product,  an  apparatus 
like  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  56 
was  used.  The  helm  was  sup- 
plied with  two  conducting  tubes, 
each  of  which  was  continuous 
with  a  groove  around  the  inner 
wall  of  the  helm,  on  the  plane 
of  their  division. 

Fig.  57  shows  a  section  of 
a  stove  and  apparatus  used  in 
process  for  dry  distillation,  per 
descensum.  The  stove  was  Fig.  56. 

divided  into  two  compartments  by  a  diaphragmatic  contrivance, 
into  a  central  opening  of  which  an  earthen  vessel  was  cemented 


Ancient  Distilling  Apparatus. 


93 


from  below.  The  mouth  of  this  vessel,  which  opened  into  the 
upper  half  of  the  stove,  was  covered  over  by  a  piece  of  perforated 
tin.  Over  this  a  similar  vessel, 
previously  filled  with  the  sub- 
stance to  be  distilled,  was  in- 
verted, and  the  mouths  of  the  two 
pots  carefully  adjusted.  A  fire 
was  then  started  around  the  upper 
pot,  causing  the  products  of  dis- 
tillation, the  heavy  tar  oils,  to 
drip  through  the  holes  in  the  tin 
into  the  lower  vessel,  where  they 
could  be  secured  by  means  of  a 
conducting  tube  at  the  bottom  of 
the  pot.  For  want  of  a  stove  the 


Fig.  57- 


lower  pot  was  frequently  sunk  into  the  ground  and  a  fire  started 
around  the  upper  one,  when  the  same  object  was  attained.  The 
oleum  juniperi  empyreumaticum  was  prepared  in  this  manner. 


Fig.  58- 
ALCHEMIST'S  FIRE-PLACE,  1618. 


(95) 


'  What  friend  is  like  the  might  of  fire, 
When  men  can  watch  and  wield  the  ire  ? 
Whate'er  we  shape  or  work,  we  owe 
Still  to  that  heaven-descended  glow." 

—SCHILLER  (The  Lay  of  the  Bell). 


|Jet>en. 


- places  an5  S«oucs. 


]HE  important  office  assigned  to  fire  in  the  labors 
of  alchemists  —  the  precursors  of  the  modern 
chemists — early  led  to  the  construction  of  special 
hearths  and  stoves,  by  which  the  heat  required  in 
the  practice  of  the  hermetic  art  could  be  con- 
veniently supplied  and  regulated.  As  early  as  the  ninth  century 
the  Arabian  "Geber,"  who  lived  in  Seville,  wrote  a  work  which 
has  come  down  to  us  in  the  Latin  version,  as  "  De  Fornacibus 
Construendis,"  in  which  he  describes  stoves  for  calcinating,, 
melting  and  distilling. 

As  a  result  of  the  advancement  of  pharmacy  in  the  occi- 
dental countries  after  the  twelfth  century,  the  principles  under- 
went vast  changes  and  improvements.  The  principal  stoves  in 
use  in  the  Middle  Ages  for  the  preparation  of  medicines,  and  in 
particular  those  used  in  the  process  of  distilling,  are  minutely 
described  in  the  two  books  by  Hieronymus  Brunschwyck, 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  chapter.  In  Figure  48,  Chapter 
Six,  a  stove  of  the  most  simple  construction  is  shown.  This 
class  of  stoves  was  built  of  brick  or  glazed  tile,  that  could  be 
readily  taken  apart  and  readjusted.  On  one  side,  at  the  base, 
was  an  aperture  for  the  introduction  of  fuel  and  the  removal  of 
ashes,  and  on  either  side  were  lesser  openings  for  draught  pur- 
poses. On  the  other  side  of  the  stove,  opposite  the  main  aper- 
ture, were  two  openings  for  the  escape  of  the  smoke.  When 
distilling  from  a  fire-proof  kettle,  this  was  placed  directly  over 
the  open  fire  in  an  opening  left  in  the  top  of  the  stove.  But  in 
case  glass,  earthen  or  lead  vessels  were  employed,  the  distillation 
(97) 


9* 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


was  proceeded  with  either  "per  cinerem"  or  "per  aretiam." 
To  this  end  ashes  or  sand  were  spread  two  or  three  inches  deep 
on  an  iron  or  stone  plate,  with  which  the  opening  in  the  top  of 


Fig.  60. 

DISTILLERY  HEARTH. 


the  stove  had  been  closed,  and  upon  this  the  distilling  vessel 
was  placed.  To  distil  with  the  aid  of  a  water  bath,  "  per  balneum 
maria;,"  this  simple  stove  was  turned  into  a  so-called  coppel 


Early  Chemico-Pharmacal  Fire-Places  and  Stoves. 


99 


stove,  by  cementing  a  copper  kettle  into  the  opening  in  place  of 
the  plate  which  had  before  served  as  a  cover.  This  was  called 
a  "  coppel,"  and  was  filled  with  water,  into  which  the  distilling 
vessel  was  placed.  To  keep  the  latter  in  position  it  was  weighted 
above  and  below  with  leaden  rings.  To  protect  the  hot  stones 
from  injury  by  water,  which  might  escape  during  ebullition,  the 
copper  kettle  was 
ordinarily  supplied 
with  a  lateral  pipe 
to  conduct  the  over- 
flow to  a  safe  dis- 
tance. Fig.  59. 

For  the  purpose 
of  carrying  on  sev- 
eral distilla- 
tions on  the 
same  fire,  the 
so-called  dis- 
tillinghearths 
(Fig.  60)  were 
devised,  con- 
structed of 
baked  or  sun- 
dried  brick. 
Thesehearths 
were  divided 
into  an  upper 
and  a  lower 
compartment 
by  means  of  a 
grate.  In  the 


Fig.  61. 
COPPEL  HEARTH. 


lower  part  was  an  opening  for  the  removal  of  the  ashes,  and  t 
for  allowing  air  to  reach  the  fuel  above  the  grate.  The  fuel 
was  introduced  through  an  opening  in  the  centre  of  the  iron 
plate  covering  the  stove.  The  smoke  escaped  through  holes  left 
at  the  corners.  To  regulate  the  fire,  some  of  these  holes  were 
closed  by  means  of  earthen  plugs.  The  iron  plate  was  partially 
covered  by  tiles,  leaving  open  spaces  at  intervals  that  were  filled 
up  with  sand,  upon  which  the  distilling  vessels  were  placed. 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


In  Fig.  60  we  see  four  distilling  pans  placed  in  these  sand- 
baths,  and  surmounted  by  the  tall  condensing  caps  spoken  of  in  a 
former  chapter.  To  utilize  one  fire  to  the  utmost,  these  hearths 
were  made  of  large  dimensions,  frequently  with  ten  to  thirty 
coppels.  These  coppels  were  not  made  of  copper,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  water-bath  described  above,  but  of  clay,  on  account  of  its 
greater  cheapness  and  resistance  to  fire.  Fig.  61  shows  us  one 
of  these  coppel  hearths  with  thirteen  stills  covered  by  alembics. 
When  the  process  of  distillation  was  begun  a  receiver  was,  of 
course,  attached  to  the  beak  of  each  alembic,  as  shown  in  con- 


Fig.  62. 

DISTILLING  SCENE,  A.  D.  1597. 

nection  with  two  of  them  in  the  illustration.  These  coppel 
hearths  somewhat  resemble  the  galley  stoves  of  our  chemical 
factories  ;  the  latter  being  so  named  from  the  fact,  that  when 
fully  equipped  with  retorts,  their  appearance  calls  to  mind  the 
row  of  oars  protruding  from  a  galley.  In  Fig.  62,  which  is  taken 
from  "  The  New  Medicine  Book,"  by  Jacob  Theodor  Tabernse- 
montanus,  published  at  Neustadt  in  1592,  is  seen  a  distilling 
apparatus,  set  up  in  a  garden.  In  this  case  the  hearth  is  arranged 
terrace-like.  From  a  description  of  the  process  we  learn,  that 
"Numerous  copper  or  earthen  vessels  are  placed  upon  the 


Early  Chemico-Pharmacal  Fire- Places  and  Stoves.         101 


hearth  ;  they  are  then  filled  with  the  fresh  comminuted  herbs, 
which  have  been  saturated  with  water  or  wine.  Over  each  vessel 
is  turned  a  beaked  cap,  and  the  small  vessels  receive  the  water 
as  it  drops  from  the  beaks." 


Fig.  63. 

DISTILLING  STOVE,  A.  D.  1586. 

In  the  "Herb-Book"  of  Matthiolus,  published  in  1586,  a 
somewhat  similar  stove  is  pictured  and  described,  Fig.  63,  in 
which  the  vessels  placed  on  the  stove,  as  in  the  preceding 
picture,  are  superseded  by  the  tiles  themselves,  made  in  imita- 
tion of  jars,  as  is  plainly  seen  in  the  two  upper  rows  depicted 
in  Fig.  63.  Matthiolus,  in  describing  this  stove,  says  it  "is 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


extensively  used  at  Venice.  The  distillation  proceeds  quickly 
and  satisfactorily,  for  in  twenty-four  hours  it  will  distil  over  100 
pounds  of  water.  The  stove  is  built  round,  and  is  made  by  a 
potter,  just  as  he  would  any  other  tile  stove  or  hearth  that  we 


Fig.  64. 
ALTHANOR  DISTILLING  STOVE. 

use  in  our  homes.  The  hollow  tiles  encircle  the  stove  in  a  num- 
ber of  layers,  and  are  glazed  and  shaped  almost  like  urinal 
glasses.  These  tiles  are  capped  by  glass  distilling  helms,  which 
are  simply  turned  over  them.  The  receivers  are  attached  to  the 
beaks,  and  held  in  place  by  strings  that  are  tied  to  the  knob  on 
the  helm.  Now,  when  one  wishes  to  distil,  a  fire  is  started  in  the 


Early  Chemico-Pharmacal  Fire-Places  and  Stoves. 


103 


stove,  but  the  plants  or  flowers  are  not  yet  put  into  the  tile  vessels, 
for  the  excessive  heat  would  destroy  their  properties.  It  is, 
therefore,  better  to  wait  until  the  maximum  heat  has  subsided. 
Then,  when  the  stove  is  reasonably  hot,  it  is  closed  tightly,  so 
that  it  may  retain  an  equable  temperature  as  long  as  possible. 
Now  you  may  introduce  the  plants  and  flowers  into  the  cavities, 
turn  the  glass  helms  over  them,  and  allow  the  distillation  to  pro- 
ceed. The  resulting  distillate  will  be  much  finer  than  that 
obtained  by  means  of  zinc  vessels." 


Fig.  65. 

"WIND"  DISTILLING  STOVE. 

For  tedious  and  protracted  fire  operations  the  so-called  lazy 
"Heintz"*  or  "Althanor"  (from  aSavaro?,  everlasting,  immor- 
tal) was  the  most  desirable  and  serviceable  heating  apparatus. 
The  distinguishing  feature  of  this  stove  was  a  tall  pipe,  Fig.  64, 
closed  at  the  top  by  a  cover,  containing  the  fuel,  which,  as  in 
the  modern  American  stoves,  gradually  found  its  way  down  to 
the  grate  to  take  the  place  of  the  fuel  consumed.  These  hearths 
were  usually  supplied  with  three  or  four  coppels,  and  each  of 
these  with  its  own  fire-place,  which  was  connected  with  the  pipe 

*A  corruption  of  the  word  "  Heinrich." 


IO4  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy, 

furnishing  the  fuel.  Each  fire-place  had  an  opening,  controlled 
by  a  register,  for  the  escape  of  the  smoke.  By  the  manipulation 
of  these  registers  and  the  closing  of  the  ash-ports  the  fire  was 
regulated.  For  the  distillation  of  many  pharmaceutical  prepara- 
tions the  highest  degree  of  temperature,  consistent  with  complete 
control  over  the  operation,  was  required.  To  effect  this  it  was 
found  necessary  to  be  able  to  regulate  the  supply  of  air.  These 
features  were  embodied  in  greatest  perfection  in  the  "  Wind- 
stove,"  Fig.  65..  A  powerful  draught  was  established  by  means 


Fig.  66. 

DISTILLING  APPARATUS. 

of  a  stove-pipe,  as  at  the  present  day.  The  pipe  served  for  the 
introduction  of  fuel  and  for  the  escape  of  the  smoke.  The  fire- 
•place  could  be  shut  off  from  the  flue  by  these  registers,  and  in 
addition  the  draft  could  be  entirely  suppressed  by  means  of  a 
cover  on  the  pipe,  so  that  the  fire  was  at  all  time  under  absolute 
control.  To  utilize  the  great  amount  of  heat  constantly  going 
to  waste,  Brunschwyck  describes  a  device,  Fig.  66,  which,  on. 
account  of  its  complicated  nature,  was  probably  not  often 
resorted  to,  and  should  rather  be  classed  with  the  other  numer- 
ous technical  playthings  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  consisted  in. 
extending  the  stove-pipe  to  an  upper  floor  in  the  house,  and 
then  guiding  it  through  a  wooden  tub  filled  with  water.  The 


Early  Chemico-Pharmacal  Fire- Places  and  Stoves.         105 

pipe  imparted  enough  heat  to  the  water  to  make  this  available 
for  digestion  and  the  distillation  of  very  volatile  substances. 
For  creating  an  intense  heat  to  melt  metals,  without  resorting  to 
a  blast,  Brunschwyck  describes  a  stove  constructed  on  the  same 
plan  as  the  modern  wind-stove.  But  while  the  modern  wind- 
stove  usually  consists  of  a  sheet-iron  mantel,  lined  with  fire- 
proof cement,  the  Middle  Age  stove,  as  seen  in  Fig.  67,  is  con- 


Fig.  67. 

MIDDLE  AGE  STOVE. 

structed  of  wedge-shaped  tiles,  like  those  now  frequently  used  in 
the  construction  of  wells  and  chimneys.  As  in  the  modern  stove, 
the  interior  was  divided  by  a  grate,  underneath  which,  in  the 
walls  of  the  stove,  numerous  air  holes  were  left.  The  fuel  con- 
sisted of  wood  or  charcoal,  and  the  metal  to  be  melted  was 
packed  into  a  crucible  and  placed  in  the  fire. 

Since  in  many  instances  the  proximity  of  the  fire  proved  to 
be  a  disturbing  element  in  the  calcinating  and  melting  processes, 
a  stove  was  desired  in  which  the  substance  could  be  subjected  to  a 


io6 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


high  degree  of  heat  without  bringing  it  in  contact  with  the  flame. 
One  of  these  stoves,  known  as  a  "  reverberatory"  furnace,  is 
shown  in  Figure  68.  At  the  junction  of  the  lower  with  the  mid- 
dle third  is  a  grate  for  the  support  of  the  fire.  The  substance  to 
be  operated  upon  were  placed  in  a  separate  chamber,  against 
which  the  flames  were  directed,  and  upon  which,  by  a  special 
flue  arrangement,  they  were  deflected  or  reverberated  on  passing 
from  the  fire-chamber  to  the  chimney.  Brunschwyck  recom- 


J I I     1  j_ 


I 


Fig.  68. 

REVERBERATORY    FURNACE. 

mends  this  stove  for  making  gold  powder,  which,  according  to 
his  method,  was  effected  by  melting  together  gold  and  mercury, 
triturating  the  amalgam  and  then  driving  out  the  mercury  by 
heating  the  compound  in  the  reverberatory  furnace.  These  stoves 
naturally  found  more  application  in  metallurgical  processes  than 
in  pharmacal  manipulations. 

Besides  enumerating  tan-bark,  wood  and  charcoal,  Ryff,  in 
1567,  also  mentions  mineral  coal  for  fuel,  which  he  declares  to 
be  of  inestimable  value  to  alchemists.  He  draws  a  comparison 
between  the  living  heat  produced  by  these  substances,  and  the 
artificial  heat  by  which  the  activity  of  nature  is  imitated,  which 
latter  in  the  interior  of  the  earth  heats  the  waters  that  rise  to  the 


Early  Chemico-Pharmacal  Fire-Places  and  Stoves.         107 

surface,  and  furnish  us  with  the  wonderful  natural  springs  for  the 
cure  of  disease.  "  To  imitate  this  heat,"  he  says,  "  take  one  part 
of  fresh,  hot  unslaked  lime,  one-half  part  sulphur,  one-quarter 
part  saltpetre  and  one-eighth  part  nice  clean  alum.  Powder  each 
ingredient  separately  and  promptly  mix  them.  Put  them  into  a 
brass  globe,  which  is  then  closed,  so  as  to  insure  the  contents 
against  the  action  of  air  and  water.  It  is  then  placed  in  a  tub 
of  water.  The  steam  from  the  warm  lime  will  attach  itself  to 
the  inner  wall  of  the  globe,  and  will  be  resolved  into  drops  by 
the  action  of  the  cold  water  on  the  outside  of  the  globe,  which 
drops,  in  their  turn,  will  be  attracted  by  the  alum.  This  mois- 
ture, with  the  inherent  moisture  of  the  alum,  will  cause  the  latter 
to  melt,  whereupon  the  lime  will  become  very  hot  and  burn.  To 
maintain  its  ardor  the  saltpetre  has  been  added  to  furnish  it  with 
air,  and  the  sulphur  to  supply  it  with  nourishment,  without  which 
two  conditions  no  fire  can  be  maintained.  If  you  prepare  this 
self-heating  globe  with  scrupulous  care,  you  may  derive  great 
benefit  from  it,  for  if  you  make  it  large  enough  you  can  heat  a 
large  tub  of  water  with  it,  and  thus  secure  a  kind  of  natural  heat- 
ing bath,  similar  to  the  hot  springs." 


Ancient  $0armacopoeiac. 


Fig.  69. 

(From  Title-page  of  Pharmacopoeia  of  1666). 
(109) 


"  O,  mickle  is  the  powerful  grace  that  lies, 
In  herbs,  plants,  stones,  and  their  true  qualities! 
For  nought  so  vile  that  on  the  earth  doth  live, 
But  to  the  earth  some  special  good  doth  give." 

— ROMEO  AND  JULIET, 


m*. 


Ancient   Pharmacopoeias. 


that  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  con- 
tain formularies  corresponding,  in  some  respects, 
to  the  modern  idea  of  a  Pharmacopoeia,  the  earli- 
est collection  of  formulas,  showing  evidence  of 
supervision  over  drugs,  was  the  "  Prayogamrita '" 
of  Vardy-achin-tamani,  a  Sanscrit  work.  The  "  Compositiones 
Medica  "  of  Scribonius  Longus,  written  42  A.  D.,  is  evidence  of 
a  Roman  attempt  to  fix  some  standard. 

About  900  A.  D.  appeared  the  "Ibdal,"  an  Arabian  book  of 
formulas,  which  gave  directions  as  to  the  preparation  of  drugs. 
Under  the  influence  of  this  Arabic  training,  the  school  founded 
at  Salerno  in  the  seventh  century,  with  an  academy  founded  at 
Naples  in  the  eleventh  century,  long  maintained  an  enviable 
reputation.  Through  the  influence  of  these  schools,  drug-stores, 
called  "  Stationares,"  were  established  throughout  Italy.  In  the 
first  medical  ordinance  for  Naples  and  Sicily,  under  Frederic  11^ 
the  apothecaries  were  directed  to  be  governed  by  the  "  Antido- 
tarium  "  of  Nicolaus,  the  superintendent  of  the  medical  school 
at  Salerno.  This  Dispensatory  contains  about  one  hundred  and 
fifty  galenical  preparations,  alphabetically  arranged,  and  gives  a 
description  of  their  medicinal  properties,  with  directions  for 
administration.  This  work,  with  the  medical  works  of  Avicennar 
Serapion,  Scribonius  and  others,  formed  a  nucleus  for  more  elab- 
orate productions  in  the  interest  of  the  Apothecaries  Guild. 

A  "  formulary  "  of  the  eleventh  century,  now  in  the  archives 
of  Piedmont,  is  devoted,  first,  to  receipts  for  making  good  ink 
and  illuminative  parchment.  The  vegetable  remedies  enumer- 

(ni) 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


ated  include  aloes,  camphor,  cassia,  lettuce,  opium,  rue,  linseed, 
mustard,  etc.  The  formulary  is  largely  based  on  the  work  of 
Lucius  Apuleius  Platonicus  on  the  virtue  of  herbs. 

The  Antidotarium  of  Myrepsius  was  the  authority  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  The  "  Antidotarium  Magnum  seu  Dispensa- 
torium  ad  Aromatorios,"  extensively  used  in  Italy,  was  published 
at  Florence  in  1498.  These  Italian  works  were  long  recognized 
as  the  chief  authorities  elsewhere.  The  study  of  the  science  in 
Italy  gave  an  impetus  to  science  all  over  Europe. 

The  sixteenth  century  was  marked  by  the  appearance  of  a 
number  of  pharmacopoeias  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term. 
The  Latin  countries  first  began  to  exhibit  evidences  of  an  inde- 
pendence of  the  Italian  yoke,  for  in  1543,  Lyons  established  and 
published  the  "  Pharmacopeia  Lugdensis."*  In  southern  Ger- 
many the  sixteenth  century  was  the  golden  era.  The  arts  and 
sciences  were  being  cultivated  by  men  like  Diirer,  Vischer  and 
Krafft.  The  reformatory  spirit  of  the  age  was  shown  in  the  field 
of  medicine,  by  the  enactment  of  rational  medical  laws.  Apoth- 
ecaries' ordinances,  dating  from  the  earliest  days  of  the  century, 
were  supplemented  by  one  enacted  in  1529  by  the  Nuremburg 
Senate,  which,  among  other  things,  fixed  methods  for  the  prepa- 
ration of  m'edicines.  One  extract  reads  : 

All  the  Laxativa,  such  as  Electuaria  and  Pillulae,  must  be  prepared  and 
dispensed  by  the  druggists  in  accordance  with  the  directions  in  the  book  known 
as  the  Luminare  majus.  To  avoid  any  error  or  oversight  in  the  preparation  of 
these  Laxativa,  and  to  insure  even  preparations  by  all  druggists,  these  Laxativa 
have  been  carefully  copied  fron\,the  Luminare  majus  by  the  doctors  of  medicine. 
Each  druggist  will  be  furnished  with  a  copy,  by  which  he  must  be  guided,  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  other  formulas. 

The  "Luminare  majus  "  was  a  collection  of  formula  from  the 
later  Greek,  Roman  and  Arabian  medical  works.  Its  author, 
the  Alexandrian  Joh.  Jac.  Manlius  de  Bosco,  added  a  lengthy 
explanation  to  each  formula,  thus  making  it  rather  a  text-book 
than  a  pharmacopoeia.  Strictly  speaking,  only  one  of  the  works 
hitherto  mentioned  deserves  the  title  of  pharmacopoeia,  as  they 
were  more  like  the  ancient  Egyptian  formularies  deciphered  by 
Ebers,  and  the  Assyrian  translated  by  Sayce.  All,  however,  are 
of  value  in  tracing  the  evolution  of  the  pharmacopoeia. 

*  Rice,  Reference  Handbook  of  the  Medical  Sciences. 


Ancient  Pharmacopoeias.  113 

The  first  work  corresponding  to  the  modern  idea  of  a  phar- 
macopoeia, which  received  legal  sanction  in  Europe,  was  the 
result  of  the  labors  of  Valerius  Cordus.  This  "  Pharmacorum 
Conficiendorum  Ratio,  Vulgo  Vocant  Dispensatorium,"  was  pub- 
lished without  a  date  by  John  Petreyers  at  Nuremburg.  Its. 
author  was  born  February  18,  1515,31  Simtshausen,  in  Hesse. 
His  father,  Enricius  Cordus,  was  professor  of  medicine  at  Mar- 
burg. Valerius  and  his  brother  entered  the  University  very 
early,  and  received  its  baccalaureate  degree  in  1531.  Valerius 
went  to  Wittenburg  where  he  became  a  teacher.  In  1543  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Italy  to  study,  and  died  at  Rome,  December  25,  1544. 
There  are  many  contradictory  reports  in  historical  literature 
concerning  his  Dispensatory.  The  preface  to  the  first  edition 
states  that  "Valerius  Cordus,  the  son  of  Enrich  Cordus,  while  on 
his  journey  to  Italy  to  assuage  his  thirst  for  knowledge,  stopped 
at  Nuremburg  and  was  well  received  by  its  circle  of  learned 
men."  He  associated  particularly  with  the  physicians  who, 
upon  learning  that  he  had  carefully  compiled  a  work  containing 
all  old  and  new  medical  preparations,  with  many  improve- 
ments of  his  own,  and  that  this  book  had  been  introduced  in 
manuscript  form  in  a  number  of  cities  in  Saxony,  requested  him 
to  furnish  a  copy  for  the  Nuremburg  druggists.  Valerius,  doubt- 
ing that  they  would  adopt  his  formulas  without  legal  sanction,, 
turned  over  his  manuscript  to  the  Senate  for  examination  and 
approval.  The  Senate  accepted  it  with  thanks,  and  appointed 
a  committee  of  physicians  to  investigate  the  formulas,  so  that  in 
case  changes  were  found  necessary  they  could  be  made  with  the 
approval  of  thq  author.  This  committee  declared  it  to  be  the 
best  and  most  complete  work  of  the  kind  extant.  The  Senate 
ordered  it  printed,  and  directed  all  druggists  to--  prepare  their 
medicines  according  to  the  directions  therein  laid  down.  The 
author  died  in  Italy  before  the  book  was  printed.  It  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death  by  the  High  Senate  of  Nuremburg  as  "  a 
lasting  memorial  to  the  learned  and  brilliant  youth,  Valerius 
Cordus." 

The  Dispensatory,  which  appeared  in  September,  1546,  seems 
to  have  created  quite  a  sensation,  for  even  outside  of  Nuremberg 
it  passed  through  numerous  editions  and  reprints.  The  follow- 
ing are  known:  One  Parisian  in  1548;  three  Lyonaise,  1552, 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


1559  and  1599;  two  Venetian,  1556  and  1563,  and  one  Antwer- 
pian,  1580.  The  book,  like  all  scientific  works  of  the  period, 
was  printed  in  Latin.  The  names  of  the  compounds  were 
derived,  in  part,  from  the  ingredients,  in  part  from  their  proper- 
ties, or,  finally,  from  the  name  of  the  author.  According  to  the 
first-mentioned  method  of  nomenclature,  a  plaster  which  con- 
tained the  juice  of  fenugreek,  linseed  and  marshmallow,  was 
called  Emplastrum  diachylon,  "plaster  with  juice."  A  plaster 
containing  vinegar  and  saffron  was  called  Emplastrum  oxycro- 
•ceum,  "sour  saffron  plaster."  In  the  course  of  time  these 
plasters  underwent  changes  and  improvements,  and  the  substance 
to  which  the  remedy  owed  its  name  was  frequently  omitted. 
The  modern  Emplastr.  diachylon  contains  no  juices,  and  the 
Emplastr.  oxycroceum  of  to-day  does  not  contain  vinegar,  and 
but  infrequently  saffron. 

The  names  of  many  preparations  by  this  modification  in 
their  preparation  became  problems  for  the  philologist.  The 
etymological  obscurity  of  opodeldoc,  which  has  become  pro- 
verbial, is  an  instance.  Its  origin  may  be  easily  traced  to  the 
old  opodeldoc  plaster  of  the  last  Nuremburg  edition  of  the 
"  Dispensatorii  Valerii  Cordi."  This  does  not  contain  any 
ingredients  found  in  modern  opodeldoc,  but  its  then  chief  com- 
ponent parts  were  Opoponax,  Bedellium  and  Aristolochi  root. 
The  first  sylable  of  the  first  word,  Opo-  ;  the  second  syllable  of 
the  second  word,  -del-,  and  the  last  syllable  of  the  third  word, 
-loch,  gives  Opodelloch,  as  Paracelsus  wrote  it,  which  became 
Opodeltoch,  and  finally,  Opodeldoc.  Simples  are  mentioned  by 
Cordus  only  when  special  manipulation  is  required  to  render 
them  serviceable  as  remedies. 

The  most  important  part  of  his  book  is  a  collection  of  receipts 
by  Greek,  Roman  and  Arabian  physicians,  by  Dioscorides,  of 
Sicily  ;  Galenus,  of  Pergamus  ;  Andromachus,  the  body  physician 
of  Nero  ;  Rhazes,  of  Bagdad,  "  the  Arabian  Galen  ;  Avicenna 
("Scheich  el  Reis,"  or  "prince  of  physician's)";  Mesu6,  the 
younger,  and  Nicolaus  Prsepositus,  of  Salerno.  The  formulary 
contained  chiefly  substances  derived  from  the  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdoms.  The  compounds  were  of  a  class  known  as 
Galenical  preparations  from  the  noted  Roman  physician,  Clau- 
dius Galenus,  who  placed  great  faith  in  complex  compounds. 


Ancient  Pharmacopc 


The  heterogeneous  character  of  the  innumerable  ingredients  of 
many  of  those  compounds  impress  the  modern  mind  with  the 
idea  that  human  life  must  have  been  greatly  endangered  by  such 
remedies.  It  is  easy  to  believe  that  Shakespere,  a  master  in 
combining  poetical  fancy  with  devotion  to  fact,  must  have  been 
acquainted  with  Cordus'  work,  for  many  of  the  latter's  com- 
pounds recall  the  witch's  broth  in  "  Macbeth  "  : 


"  Round  about  the  cauldron  go  ; 

In  the  poisoned  entrails  throw. 

Toad,  that  under  cold  stone 

Days  and  nights  has  thirty-one 

Swelter' d  venom,  sleeping  got, 

Boil  them  first  i'  the  charmed  pot. 

Fillet  of  a  fenny  snake, 

In  the  cauldron  boil  and  bake  ; 

Eye  of  newt  and  toe  of  frog, 

Wool  of  bat  and  tongue  of  dog, 

Adder's  fork  and  blind  worm's  sting, 

Lizard's  leg,  and  howlet's  wing, 

For  a  charm  of  powerful  trouble, 

Like  a  hell-broth  boil  and  bubble. 

Scale  of  dragon,  tooth  of  wolf, 

Witches'  mummy,  maw  and  gulf 

Of  the  ravin' d  salt-sea  shark, 

Root  of  hemlock,  digg'd  i'  the  dark, 

Liver  of  blaspheming  Jew, 

Gall  of  goat,  and  slips  of  yew 

Sliver'd  i'  the  moon's  eclipse, 

Nose  of  Turk  and  Tartar's  lips, 

Finger  of  birth-strangled  babe 

Ditch-delivered  by  a  drab, 

Make  the  gruel  thick  and  slab  : 

Add  thereto  a  tiger's  chaudron, 
'   For  the  ingredients  of  our  cauldron." 

The  preparations  in  Cordus'  Dispensatory  are  divided  into 
Aromatics,  Opiates,  Confections,  Conserves,  Purges,  Pills,  Syr- 
ups, Electuaries,  Plasters,  Cerates,  Troches,  Salves  and  Oils. 
There  are  additional  directions  for  some  few  simples.  Antidotes 
and  disinfectants,  classed  with  the  opiates,  appear  to  have  been 
the  main  remedies  in  the  time  of  Cordus.  The  principal  repre- 
sentatives of  these  were  the  two  electuaries,  "  Theriac  "  and 
"  Mithridat."  Both  were  originally  intended  as  antidotes,  but  at 


n6  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

a  later  day  fallen  into  repute  as  remedies  for  contagious 
diseases. 

Mithridat  was  a  compound  originally  invented  by  Mith- 
ridates  Eupator,  King  of  Pontus,  who  lived  in  constant  fear 
of  poison,  and  studieoj  toxicology  by  testing  poisons  on  crimi- 
nals, and  taking  poisons  and  their  antidotes  himself  every 
day  in  the  year.  His  system  became  so  accustomed  to  the 
poisons,  that  when,  on  the  day  of  his  defeat  by  Pompey,  he 
attempted  to  poison  himself  to  avoid  capture,  the  poison  failed, 
and  he  ordered  one  of  his  soldiers  to  kill  him.  Among  the 
papers  of  the  defeated  king,  Pompey  found  the  receipt  for  this 
electuary,  which  had  a  great  reputation.  This  receipt,  and  other 
medical  manuscripts  found  with  the  body,  were  translated  by 
Pompey's  freedman,  the  grammarian,  Lenseus,  into  Latin.  Thus, 
as  Pliny*  says,  "Pompey  benefited  society  no  less  than  the  state 
by  his  victory." 

Originally  the  receipt  for  Mithridat  was  not  very  complicated, 
but  was  improved  upon  by  Damocrates,  the  body  physician  of 
Nero.  This  improved  formula,  containing  fifty-five  ingredients, 
is  introduced  by  Cordus  in  his  Dispensatory.  Andromachus, 
another  body  physician  of  Nero,  still  further  improved  upon  the 
formula  and  increased  its  ingredients. 

One  of  his  principal  additions  was  the  flesh  of  snakes,  whence 
the  name  Teriac  or  Theriac,  from  the  snake  "  Tyrus."  He  con- 
secrated this  electuary  to  his  royal  protege  in  a  poem,  enumerating 
all  its  ingredients,  which  Galen  has  preserved.  This  "  Theriac  " 
of  Andromachus  was  introduced  in  all  dispensatories,  and  was 
to  be  found  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  Germanica  of  1882  ;  although 
the  sixty-four  ingredients  given  in  the  Dispensatory  of  Cordus, 
had  dwindled  to  twelve.  Theriac  apparently  occupied  an  im- 
portant position  in  medicine  down  to  the  present  century. 
Brunschwyck,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  writes  : 
"  When  Theriac  is  to  be  made,  each  of  its  component  parts 
should  be  exposed  for  at  least  two  months  in  a  public  place,  as 
at  Venice,  so  that  the  wise  men  and  doctors  may  inspect  them, 
and  determine  whether  or  not  they  are  fit  for  use." 

Figure  70,  from  Brunschwyck's  "  Book  for  the  Distillation 
of  Composite  Things,"  depicts  a  public  display  of  vessels  con- 

'  C.  Plinius..  Natural  History,  Vol.  25,  Ch.  3. 


Ancient '  Pharmacopoeias.  117 

taining  the  ingredients  of  Theriac.  The  two  human  figures 
represent  a  doctor  and  a  druggist.  The  two  banners  at  the 
corners  of  the  table  are  decorated  with  Venetian  lions,  since 
Venetian  Theriac  had  the  greatest  reputation.  As  the  display 
lasted  several  months,  it  certainly  did  not  take  place  in  the  open 
air,  and  the  object  of  the  illustration  in  placing  the  table  on  the 
street,  was  to  convey  the  idea  that  it  was  a  public  affair.  In 


Fig.  7°- 

Germany,  Theriac  was  prepared  under  official  supervision ;  the 
Nuremburg  apothecaries'  ordinance  provides  that  "no  Theriac 
shall  in  future  be  branded  with  the  seal  of  the  city  unless  it  have 
been  previously  examined  and  declared  worthy  of  the  same  by 
the  doctors  of  medicine  :  every  druggist  must  know  the  age  of 
the  Theriac  he  sells.  Inasmuch  as  its  action  changes  very 
materially  with  age,  the  buyer  should  in  all  instances  be  informed 
of  this,  so  that  he  may  not  be  deceived."  From  the  publicity 


u8  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

given  the  matter,  the  preparation  of  Theriac  soon  grew  to  be  a 
state  festival.  The  last  public  preparation  of  Theriac  took  place 
at  Nuremberg  in  1754.  Since  then  it  has  gradually  lost  ground, 
and  this  Nestor  of  medicines  now  pines  out  its  existence  in  out- 
of-the-way  corners  of  a  few  antiquated  pharmacies,  where  some 
spider  has  kindly  spun  a  veil  of  mourning  around  it.  "  Sic  tran- 
sit gloria  mundi."  Even  simples  were  obtained,  according  to 
the  methods  of  Cordus,  by  very  complicated  procedures.  To 
prepare  goafs-blood,  formerly  officinal,  the  druggist  was  obliged 
to  feed  a  middle-aged  buck,  for  one  month,  on  celery,  parsley 
and  other  Umbelliferae,  slaughter  him  in  early  summer  when  the 
sun  was  in  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  dry  the  blood  in  an  oven. 

As  the  Dispensatory  of  Cordus  was  based  entirely  on  the 
Galenico-Arabian  school,  the  quinta  essentia,  tinctures,  extracts 
and  chemicals  were  wanting.  Distillation  is  briefly  referred  to 
in  connection  with  a  a  few  ethereal  oils.  The  distilled  waters 
are  omitted,  not  because  they  were  not  used,  but  because  they 
were  already  so  well  known  that,  with  the  simples,  they  could  be 
disregarded.  As  the  pharmacist  had,  in  a  great  measure,  to 
depend  on  foreign  drugs,  not  always  obtainable,  because  of 
defective  methods  of  communication,  he  was  tempted  to  practice 
substitution.  The  custom  of  substitution  advocated  by  Galen 
became  so  general  in  the  Middle  Ages  that  it  was  found  expedient 
to  designate  the  proper  succedanea.  In  an  appendix  to  the 
Cordus  Dispensatory,  under  the  heading,  "De  Succedaneis 
Quid  pro  Quo,"  the  Parisian  physician  enumerates  the  following 
substitutes :  "  For  the  winter  cherry,  take  common  nightshade  ; 
for^  colocynth,  take  castor  beans  ;  for  oil  of  laurel,  take  tar  ;  for 
storax,  take  castor  ;  for  ginger,  take  pellitory  root."  The  substi- 
tutes do  not  always  possess  the  same  properties  as  the  drugs  that 
they  supplant.  This  custom  probably  had  bad  results. 

In  the  1592  edition  of  the  Cordic  Dispensatory  edited  by  the 
Collegii  Medici,  American  drugs  are  introduced,  among  them 
sarsaparilla  and  sassafras.  Oddly  enough  guaiac,  which  was 
administered  to  Ulric  von  Hutten,  who  died  of  syphilis,  is  not 
mentioned  in  this  edition.  Another  American  drug  was  tobacco, 
used  in  skin  diseases.  Among  the  chemicals  are  found  the 
natural  salts,  alum,  borax,  saltpetre,  etc. ;  and  a  number  of  Sales 
arteficiosi.  These  latter,  sal  absinthii,  sal  alkekengi,  sal  tartari, 


Ancient  Pharmacopoeias.  ng 

etc.,  are  derived  from  the  ash  of  plants  and  other  substances, 
and  consisted,  in  nearly  every  instance,  of  potash  carbonate, 
while  their  name  merely  indicated  the  source  whence  they  were 
derived.  The  artificial  metallic  salts,  advocated  by  Paracelsus, 
are  wanting  in  this  edition.  By  the  medical  laws  of  1592,  attached 
to  this  Dispensatory,  doctors  and  barbers  are  forbidden  the  use 
of  the  Paracelsian  salts,  such  as  Turpethum  minerale,  Mercurius 
praecipitatus,  and  Aurum  vitae. 

A  chapter  on  extracts  and  distilled  waters  was  also  incorpo- 
rated. Plants  and  animals  are  pressed  into  service  for  this  pur- 
pose. Aqua  caponis  and  Aqua  pullorum,  "distillates  of  capon 
and  pullet,"  are  recommended  as  strengthening  draughts  and 
for  inflammatory  chest  diseases.  The  1598  edition  of  the 
Dispensatory,  edited  by  the  Collegii  Medici,  mentions  among 
American  drugs  guaiac  wood  and  white  jalap  (Radix  mechoa- 
cannae)  now  obsolete.  To  secure  remedies  from  the  animal 
kingdom  the  druggist  was  compelled  to  war  with  numerous 
animals ;  he  was  called  upon  to  furnish  "  Epar  lupi,"  or  Wolf- 
liver  ;  "  Pulmo  vulpis,"  fox  lung.  This  still  survives  in  the 
name  of  a  syrup  which  contains  no  fox  lung ;  "  Cervi  os  de 
corde,"  deer  spine ;  "  Gallinarum  stomachorum  interiores  pel- 
liculae,"  inner  membrane  of  a  chicken  stomach,  which  still 
survives  in  "  ingluvin  ;"  "  Lana  succida,"  sheep's  wool ;  "Lucii 
mandibula,"  the  toothed  jaw  of  a  pike;  "  Pili  leporis"  and 
"  Talus  leporis,"  rabbit  hair  and  foot,  still  used  by  negroes ; 
"Grsecum  album,"  white  excrement  of  a  dog;  "Lapis  fellus 
bovini,"  gallstones  of  an  ox,  still  used  in  the  shape  of  ox-gall ; 
swallows,  sparrows,  scorpions  and  centipedes  were  burned  to 
ashes  before  being  admitted  into  the  kingdom  of  ^Esculapius 
under  the  names  of  ."  Hirundines  ustse,"  "  Passeres  troglody- 
tides,"  "  Scorpiones,"  etc.  Fat  from  every  animal  had  to  be 
procured.  The  sixteenth  century  pharmacist  must  have  re- 
garded with  envious  eye  his  plump  fellow  being,  for  he  was  also 
asked  to  keep  in  stock  "  poor  sinner's  fat,"  "  Adeps  hominis." 
"  Cranium  humanum,"  and  "  Oleum  ossium  humanorum  "  were 
also  highly  prized  medicines.  In  this  edition  of  the  Dispensa- 
tary  some  of  the  more  powerful  metallic  salts  are  introduced, 
such  as  white  arsenic,  the  red  and  yellow  arsenic  sulphides,  red 
precipitate,  and  corrosive  sublimate.  Of  the  mineral  acids,  sul- 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


phuric  acid  alone  is  mentioned.  On  the  whole,  the  sixteenth 
century  materia  medica,  as  represented  by  the  pharmacal  body 
corporate,  was  comparatively  refined.  Cordus'  Dispensatory 
contains  comparatively  few  of  the  disgusting  remedies  in  use  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  the  mere  suggestion 
of  which  shocks  modern  taste. 

Many  of  the  larger  German  cities  introduced  pharmacopoeias 
of  their  own  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Thus,  in  1564,  the  "  Phar- 
macopoeia sen  Medicamentarium  pro  Republica  Augustana," 
was  published  at  Augsburg,  edited  by  the  physician,  Adolf  Occo. 
In  1565  the  Pharmacopoeia  of  the  City  of  Cologne  was  issued. 
A  pharmacopoeia  was  also  published  at  Basel,  by  Dr.  Foes,  in 
the  year  1561. 

The  sixteenth  century  was  quite  prolific  in  pharmacopoeias. 
One  was  published  at  Mantua,  Italy,  in  1559,  and  one  at  Ber- 
gamo, in  1580.  In  Spain,  the  University  town  of  Salamanca 
caught  the  spirit  of  the  age  by  publishing  a  Pharmacopoeia  in 
1588.  These  all  bore  some  resemblance  to  the  work  of  Cordus, 
which  was  but  natural,  since  all  bore  traces  of  the  Italian 
influence. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  (1601),  Spain,  at  the  Great  Univer- 
sity of  Salamanca,  published  the  first  new  Pharmacopoeia.  In 
this  century  the  influence  of  the  separation  of  the  apotheca- 
ries from  the  grocers  in  England,  was  shown  in  the  necessity 
felt  for  some  official  standard,  whence  came  the  first  English 
Pharmacopoeia,  the  Pharmacopoeia  Londinensis,  published  in 
1618.  Subsequent  editions  of  this  work  were  published  in  1650, 
1677,  1721  and  1746.  The  early  English  pharmacopoeias  were 
largely  compilations  from  the  works  of  Mesue,  Nicolaus,  and 
authors  of  this  class,  even  as  late  as  1721. 

The  College  of  Physicians,  in  the  preface  to  their  1746  edition 
of  the  Pharmacopoeia,  declare  that  "  it  is  certainly  a  disgrace 
and  just  reproach  if  pharmacy  should  any  longer  abound  with 
these  inartificial  and  irregular  mixtures,  which  the  ignorance  of 
the  first  ages  introduced,  and  the  perpetual  fear  and  jealousies 
enforced  ;  against  which  the  ancients  endlessly  busied  themselves 
in  the  search  of  antidotes,  which,  for  the  most  part,  they  super- 
stitiously  and  dotingly  derived  from  oracles,  dreams  and  astro- 
logical fancies  ;  and,  vainly  hoping  to  frame  compositions  that 


Ancient  Pharmacopoeias. 


might  surely  prevail  against  every  species  of  poison,  they 
amassed  together  whatever  they  had  imagined  to  be  endowed 
with  alexipharmic  powers.  By  this  procedure  the  simplicity  of 
physic  was  lost,  and  a  wantonness  in  mixing,  enlarging  and 
accumulating  took  place,  which  has  continued  even  to  our  own 
time."  The  Lyons  Pharmacopoeia  long  remained  without  a 
French  competitor,  for  the  first  Pharmacopoeia  issued  at  Paris 
appeared  in  1637.  This  was  republished  in  1639  as  a  Codex. 
Burdigal  published  its  own  Pharmacopoeia  in  1643  ;  Toulons 
followed  its  example  in  1648,  and  Valenciennes  in  1651. 

In  the  Netherlands,  each  of  the  prominent  cities  issuepl  its 
own  Pharmacopoeia ;  Amsterdam  in  1636 ;  Leyden  in  1638  ; 
Brussels  in  1639  ;  Lille  in  1640  ;  Gand  and  The  Hague  in  1652  ; 
Utrecht  and  Louvaine  in  1656  ;  and  Antwerp  in  1661. 

A  pharmacopoeia  also  appeared  at  Stralsund  in  1645.  The 
first  Danish  pharmacopoeia,  the  "  Pharmacopoeia  Hofmensis," 
was  published  in  1658. 

In  1666,  the  fifth  and  last  edition  of  the  Cordic  Dispensatory 
left  the  press.  On  the  title-page  of  this  edition  is  the  copper- 
print  reproduced  on  the  first  page  of  this  chapter,  Fig.  69. 
The  lower  part  furnishes  a  birds-eye  view  of  Nuremburg,  while 
above  and  suspended  in  the  clouds  is  seen  a  disciple  of  ^scul- 
apius,  mounted  on  a  dragon,  and  directing  four  fiery  steeds. 
Materia  medica  had  undergone  a  great  change  since  the  preced- 
ing edition  (1612)  was  issued.  The  list  of  remedies  of  animal 
origin  was  greatly  augmented,  and  excrementitious  substances 
were  given  special  prominence.  Medical  cannibalism  also 
increased  in  an  alarming  degree.  Belts  of  human  skin  and 
woman  butter  enter  upon  the  scene  ;  boy's  urine,  distilled  with 
Hungarian  vitriol,  produced  the  Spiritus  antipilepticus,  an  empy- 
reumatic  distillate  employed  in  epilepsy.  After  the  same  formula 
Spiritus  calvariae  humanae  and  Spiritus  ossium  humanorum  were 
prepared.  Besides  these  disgusting  remedies,  whose  adoption 
does  not  redound  to  the  glory  of  medicine  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  many  useful  remedies  were  also  introduced,  which  have 
retained  their  reputation  to  the  present  day.  Cinchona  is  men- 
tioned for  the  first  time.  Among  American  drugs  still  in  use, 
Jalap,  Peru  and  Tolu  balsam  are  added.  The  tinctures  and 
essences  recommended  bv  Paracelsus,  and  the  number  of 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


"  Salia  "  and  "  Chymica,"  have  also  been  multiplied.  Ammonia 
carbonate,  mixed  with  a  variety  of  empyreumatic  substances, 
comes  in  for  its  share  of  attention  under  the  names  of  "  Sal  vola- 
tile cranii  humani,"  "  cornu  cervi,"  "  succini,"  "  viperarum  "  and 
"urinae."  "Sal  jovis"  is  prepared  by  dissolving  zinc-ash,  and 
"  Sal  saturni "  by  dissolving  red  lead  in  vinegar."  "  Mercurius 
prjecipitatus  albus  "  is  prepared  by  dissolving  mercury  in  nitric 
acid,  and  the  adding  to  this  a  solution  of  sodium  chloride.  The 
resulting  precipitate  is  a  mild  mercury  chloride,  identical  with 
our  white  precipitate.  Antimony,  although  not  mentioned  in 
this  Dispensatory,  had  found  a  wide  application  in  medicine. 
Antimony  goblets  were  in  use  in  the  seventeenth  century  in. 
convents.  Monks  addicted  to  wine  were  compelled  to  use  these 
goblets.  When  the  wine  remained  in  contact  with  the  metal  for 
a  brief  period,  it  dissolved  the  antimony,  forming  a  wine  of 
antimony,  which  nauseated,  and  was  said  to  have  created  an 
aversion  to  the  favorite  drink.  The  everlasting  pills,  "  Pillulae 
perpetuse,"  of  our  forefathers,  were  also  made  of  the  metallic 
antimony.  These  were  handed  down  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion as  a  precious  heirloom,  for,  as  a  contemporaneous  writer 
says  :  "  Though  they  may  have  passed  through  the  system  an 
hundred  times,  they  will  always  purge,  and  one  will  scarcely 
notice  any  diminution  in  their  size." 

In  the  1666  edition  of  the  Cordic  Dispensatory  so  many 
chemicals,  extracts  and  tinctures  are  mentioned,  together  with 
the  old  galenical  formulas,  that  it  may  properly  be  called  a 
representative  work  of  the  medical  era  foreshadowed  by  Para- 
celsus. With  the  exception  of  the  alkaloids  (not  discovered  until 
the  nineteenth  century)  it  contains  all  classes  of  remedies  found 
in  modern  pharmacopoeias.  The  first  Swedish  pharmacopoeia> 
"The  Pharmacopoeia  Holmensis,"  appeared  in  1686. 

The  first  Prussian  pharmacal  standard  was  the  "  Dispensa- 
torum  Brandenburgii,"  issued  in  1698.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century  Spain  published  Pharmacopoeias  at  Barce- 
lona in  1686,  and  at  Saragossa  in  1698.  The  first  Swiss  Pharma- 
copoeia, "The  Pharmacopoeia  Helvetiorum,"  appeared  in  1677. 
Haarlem,  in  Holland,  issued  a  Pharmacopoeia  in  1693.  The 
eighteenth  century  saw  several  new  Pharmacopoeias  issued.  The 
first  Austrian  Pharmacopoeia  was  issued  in  1739,  and  w*s  revised 


Ancient  Pharmacopoeias.  123 

by  StOrck  in  1774.  The  first  Bohemian  Pharmacopoeia  appeared 
at  Prague  in  1739.  Even  Persia  issued  one  in  1771,  the 
"  Makzan  el  Adwyn." 

Dort,  in  Holland,  issued  one  in  1708,  and  Almeria,  in  Spain, 
one  in  1724. 

In  consequence  of  the  efforts  of  Dr.  Tilton,  of  Delaware,  to 
reform  the  commissary  department  of  Washington's  Army,  the 
first  American  Pharmacopoeia  was  published  at  Philadelphia  in 
1778. 

Not  until  the  troubles  of  1789  had  quieted  down  did  the  first 
Irish  Pharmacopoeia  appear  in  1794. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  character  of  English  Dispensatories 
in  the  eighteenth  century  the  following  formula  is  cited  from 
the  "Pharmacopoeia  Officinalis  Extemporanea "  or  "Complete 
English  Dispensatory,"  London,  1741. 

Vinum  Millepedum  (Hog-Lice  Wine). — Take  hog-lice,  half  a  pound,  put 
them  alive  into  two  pounds  of  white  port  wine,  and  after  some  days'  infusion 
strain  and  press  out  very  hard  ;  then  put  in  saffron  -.wo  drachms,  salt  of  steel 
one  drachm,  and  salt  of  amber  two  scruples,  and  after  three  or  four  days  strain 
and  filter  for  use.  This  is  an  admirable  medicine  against  the  jaundice,  dropsy 
or  any  cachectic  habit.  It  greatly  deterges  all  the  viscera,  and  throws  off  a 
great  deal  of  superfluous  humors  by  urine.  It  may  be  given  twice  a  day,  two 
ounces  at  a  time. 


Qttefcicaf 


Fig.  71. 

DEMONS  OF  DISEASE. 
(From  a  book  published  A.  D.  i 


(125) 


Now  the  magic  fire  prepare, 
And  from  graves  uprooted  tear 
Trees,  whose  horrors  gloomy  spread 
Round  the  mansions  of  the  dead  ; 
Bring  the  eggs  and  plumage  foul 
Of  a  midnight  shrieking  owl. 
Be  they  well  besmeared  with  blood 
Of  the  blackest  venom'd  toad  ; 
From  their  various  climates  bring 
Every  herb  that  taints  the  spring  ; 
Then  into  the  charm  be  thrown, 
Snatch'd  from  famished  bitch,  a  bone  ; 
Burn  them  all  with  magic  flame 
Kindled  first  by  Colchian  dame." 

—HORACE  (Ode  V,  Book  V). 


(126) 


(Time. 


Icdicnl    Superstition. 


,  the  sponsor  for  miracle,  and  half- 
brother  of  faith,  in  the  early  centuries  so  dominated 
all  fields  of  human  endeavor,  that  it  would  be  a 
difficult  matter  to  name  a  science  under  whose 
cloak  it  has  not  practiced  its  wild  pranks.  The 
exact  science  of  astronomy  lay  hidden  in  astrology,  which  reared 
a  numerous  progeny  of  augurs,  soothsayers  and  interpreters  of 
dreams.  It  was  parent  to  the  many  simpletons  who,  misled  by 
alchemy,  endeavored,  with  the  aid  of  the  "  philosopher's  stone," 
to  turn  everything  into  gold,  and  make  man  immortal.  Religious 
superstitions  gave  birth  to  sorcery,  to  apparitions,  hobgoblins  and 
phantoms ;  and  prompted  the  interpreters  of  human  laws  to 
institute  the  abominable  ordeals  of  fire  and  water,  subsequently 
eclipsed  in  cruelty  by  the  witchcraft  laws.  It  is  not  astonishing 
that  superstition  should  have  usurped  a  seat  and  secured  even 
legal -recognition  in  the  domain  of  medicine,  when  its  fetich  tic 
origin  is  remembered.  The  medical  literature  of  the  ( Middle 
Ages  shows  that  many  devotees  of  the  art  of  healing  exerted  the 
ignoble  skill  of  swimming  with  the'  tide  of  superstition,  and  of 
subordinating  their  profession  to  its  mandates. 

Medical  superstition  was  largely  based  on  certain  views  as  to 
the  nature  of  disease.  Before  man  had  accustomed  himself  to 
look  for  cause  and  effect  in  the  domain  of  nature,  and  before 
physiology  had  cleared  up  the  secrets  of  the  mechanical  pro- 
cesses associated  with  life,  the  cause  of  disease  was  sought  for, 
not  in  the  degenerative  changes  and  perverted  tissue  metamor- 
phosis of  the  body  itself,  but  in  the  influence  of  some  external 
(127) 


J28  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

evil  agent,  promptly  personified,  in  accordance  with  the  custom 
of  early  man,  when  he  could  find  no  other  explanation  for  natural 
mutations  affecting  his  well-being.  A  higher  power,  a  demon 
under  the  guise  of  disease,  took  possession  of  its  victim.  This 
view  of  disease  was  not  only  almost  universally  accepted  by  the 
illiterate  classes,  but  was  so  firmly  rooted  in  the  minds  of  learned 
physicians  that  traces  of  it  a/e  detectable  in  medical  works  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  An  eminent  professor  of  Medical  Juris- 
prudence in  an  American  college,  displayed  decided  traces  of 
these  old  superstitions  when,  in  October,  1888,  he  publicly 
stated  that  insanity  of  the  sexual  perversion  type  was  an  evi- 
dence of  demoniacal  possession.  Certain  outcast  clergymen 
reap  a  golden  harvest  by  pretending  to  exorcise  the  insane  in 
the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States.  With  these  facts  in  mind, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  in  the  Middle  Ages,  mental  diseases, 
epilepsy  and  nightmare  were,  without  hesitation,  declared  to  be 
due  to  visitations  of  ghosts  and  spirits. 

Brunschwyck's  "  Book  for  Distilling  Composite  Things  "  has 
a  chapter  entitled  "A  Good  Water  to  Drive  out  Demons  and 
Demonic  Spirits,"  which  is  introduced  by  a  picture  of  a  number 
of  these  diabolical  monsters  (Figure  71).  When  forced  to  con- 
tend with  such  conceptions,  the  efforts  of  the  healing  art  were 
necessarily  directed  along  different  channels  than  at  the  present 
day,  and  consisted  in  great  part  of  banishing  and  warding  off 
the  encroachments  of  these  demons  of  disease.  The  most 
varied  means  were  adopted  to  accomplish  this  end.  Talismen 
and  amulets  were  much  in  favor.  These  means  of  protection, 
still  employed  by  some  people,  were  formerly  extensively  pre- 
scribed by  physicians.  As  late  as  1731  the  "  Dispensatorium 
Regium  Electorate  Borusso-Brandenburgicum  "  contains  a  for- 
mula for  an  amulet  to  ward  off  the  plague,  the  terror  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  This  formula  seems  rather  to  have  originated  in 
a  witch's-kitchen  than  in  the  august  College  of  Physicians  of  the 
youthful  Prussian  kingdom.  The  following  is  the  formula,  from 
a  Pharmacopoeia  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  old  : 

"  Helmonfs  Amulet  for  the  Plague.— Although  some  may  dis- 
parage the  virtues  of  this  remedy,  it  has  nevertheless  proven  its 
efficacy  in  many  instances,  particularly  during  the  war  between 
the  imperialists  and  rebels  in  Hungary,  where  the  plague  raged 


Medical  Superstition. 


129 


in  a  terrible  manner.  It  gained  such  a  reputation  throughout 
the  country  that  all  «  barbers  and  blear-eyed  witches  '  are  already 
acquainted  with  its  virtues.  It  is  prepared  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  Large,  old  frogs,  caught  in  the  month  of  June,  are  hung 
up  by  their  hind  legs  over  a  dish  covered  with  wax,  which  has 
been  placed  over  a  moderate  fire.  After  a  few  days  the  frogs 
discharge  horrible  fumes  and  slaver,  which  attract  every  kind 
of  worms  and  flies.  These  stick  to  the  wax,  and  add  their  own 
drivel  to  the  mess.  When  the  frogs  are  dead,  roast  and  mix 
them  with  the  carefully  preserved  mixture  of  wax  and  drivel, 
and  shape  this  compound  into  small  rolls,  or  imitate  the  shapes 
of  frogs.  One  of  these  is  sewn  into  a  cloth,  and  worn  in  the 
region  of  the  heart,  suspended  by  a  silk  thread  around  the  neck. 
The  longer  one  wears  these  the  more  certainly  will  he  be  pro- 
tected from  the  ravages  of  the  plague." 

The  "Corpus  Pharmaceutico-Chymico-Medicum  Universale," 
of  Joh.  H.  Junkens,  published  in  1697,  contains  a  still  richer 
collection  of  similar  formulas.  The  supposition  was,  that  disease 
entertained  the  same  dislike  for  these  disgusting  and  nauseating 
substances  as  the  human  being,  and  the  wearer  of  them,  there- 
fore, had  nothing  to  fear  from  the  demons  of  disease.  It  is  for 
this  reason  that  the  component  parts  of  many  amulets  are  not  of 
very  delicate  nature.  For  epistaxis,  Junkens,  in  his  "  Univer- 
sal Pharmacopoeia,"  recommends  the  following  compound  under 
the  euphonious  name  of  "  Sacculus  pro  amuleto  in  hsemorrhagia 
narium  Senneri."  "A  small  bag  of  red  silk,  filled  with  frog's  ash, 
moss  from  a  human  skull,  sea  beans,  frog's-root,  etc.,  is  worn 
suspended  from  the  neck  by  a  silken  thread."  The  moss  from 
human  skull, "  Usnea  cranii  humani,"  was  either  Parmelia  saxatilis 
or  Parmelia  omphalodes.  Lemery,  in  the  "  Cours  de  Chimie," 
published  in  1675,  says  of  it:  "When  the  skulls  have  been 
exposed  to  the  air  for  many  years,  a  kind  of  green  moss  grows 
upon  them  which  is  called  Usne.  It  is  imported  from  Ireland, 
where  it  is  customary  to  allow  executed  criminals  to  hang  on 
posts  in  the  field  until  they  drop  oft"  piecemeal.  After  the  skin 
and  meat  have  disappeared,  the  moss  develops  on  the  skull.  It 
is  very  astringent,  and  stops  bleeding  when  applied  externally. 
Taken  internally  it  is  also  good  for  epilepsy,  for  it  contains  an 
abundance  of  volatile  cranial  salts." 


130  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

Sea  beans  are  the  lids  of  a  certain  snail's  shell  (Turbo  cochlus, 
rugosus,  etc).  The  shells  were  worn  as  amulets  for  epistaxis, 
used  as  a  vermifuge  and  diuretic,  and  applied  to  the  abdomen  in 
colic.  Oswald  Troll,  in  his  "  Basilica  Chymica,"  gives  minute 
directions  for  preparing  amulets,  as  follows  : 

Zenexton  seu  Xenzethon  Paracelsi. — First  you  have  an  instrument  made  for 
modeling  tablettes  that  shall  weigh  \y2  drachms  each.  This  instrument  is  to 
consist  of  three  parts,  (i)  An  upper  plate  engraved  with  a  seal,  embodying  a 
snake.  (2)  A  lower  part  made  in  the  shape  of  an  anvil,  with  a  scorpion  engraved 
on  the  upper  surface  ;  and  (3)  a  ring  to  retain  the  mass  when  it  is  compressed 
between  the  upper  and  lower  pieces.  The  instrument  should  be  made  at  a  time 
when  sun  and  moon  enter  the  sign  of  the  scorpion.  The  tablettes  should  also  be 
made  at  this  time,  or,  at  least,  when  the  moon  enters  the  sign  of  the  scorpion  ; 
foi»in  this  manner  the  things  on  high  and  those  of  the  lower  regions  are  married 
by  a  sympathetic  and  inseparable  union.  These  amulets  or  constellated  tablettes 
are  composed  of 

*'  2  ounces  dried  frogs. 

Zenith  juvencularurn  (Sanguinis  menstrui  primi),  as  much  as  you  can  secure. 
Yt  ounce  white  or  red  arsenic. 
3  drachms  tormentilla. 

1  drachm  pearls  (that  have  not  been  perforated). 
J£  drachm  each  of  corals,  hyacinths  and -emeralds. 

2  scruples  of  oriental  saffron. 

To  please  the  sense  of  smell,  a  few  grains  of  musk  or  ambergris  may  be  added. 
All  parts  are  now  finely  powdered  and  made  into  a  mass  by  the  admixture 
of  tragacanth  and  rosewater." 

The  tablettes  (Pentacula)  are  now  formed  at  the  time  men- 
tioned, and  by  the  instrument  described  above  ;  or,  if  one  prefer, 
they  may  be  made  in  the  shape  of  a  heart. 

"  Use. —  These  Pentacula  are  worn  between  the  wearing 
apparel  in  the  region  of  the  heart.  They  not  only  fortify  the 
wearer  against  the  plague,  but  also  counteract  all  poisons  and 
nullify  pernicious  astral  influences." 

Precious  stones  were  reputed  to  have  power  to  protect  from 
disease,  and  were  consequently  worn  for  this  purpose,  set  in  gold, 
silver  or  steel.  Diamonds  worn  on  the  left  arm  were  a  protec- 
tion against  madness,  wild  animals,  war,  quarrels,  poison  and 
delirium.  That  precious  stones  were  quite  generally  pressed 
into  this  service,  is  witnessed  by  the  "  Zenexton  pro  ditioribus 
Magnatibus,"  the  preparation  of  which  is  thus  described  by 
Oswald  Troll  -. 


Medical  Superstition,  131 


"  A  capsule  of  purest  gold  is  made,  and  into  it  a  golden  tube, 
whose  walls  are  perforated  by  numerous  openings,  is  securely 
fastened.  On  one  side  of  the  capsule  a  brilliant  sapphire  is 
attached,  and  surrounded  by  four  frog-stones ;  the  other  side 
being  similarly  embellished  by  a  large  hyacinth.  The  capsule 
is  then  filled  with  ground  frogs  and  the  best  of  vinegar,  and  the 
perforated  tube  running  through  the  centre  of  the  capsule  is  filled 
with  shreds  of  linen,  'Quod  primo  virginis  menstruo,  quse  annum 
decimum  quintum  nondum  excesserit  madefacum  fuit,'  having  a 
care  that  the  contents  of  the  capsule  and  those  of  the  tube  may 
come  in  contact  by  way  of  the  openings  in  the  latter.  This 
mutual  contact  is  productive  of  an  element  of  sympathy,  which 
in  its  turn  is  antagonistic  to  all  poisons,  as  has  been  conclusively 
proven  by  those  who  have  worn  this  amulet  during  epidemics  of 
plague." 

Incantations  were  used  to  drive  out  disease.  The  peasantry 
in  many  parts  of  Europe  place  more  confidence  to-day  in  the 
conjuring  and  appeasing  of  disease  by  magical  agencies  than  in 
the  practices  of  qualified  physicians.  These  ceremonies  are 
ordinarily  directed  by  pock-marked,  wrinkled,  blear-eyed  old 
women.  After  repeating  some  traditional  mystic  rite,  which,  on 
account  of  its  mere  verbal  transmission,  varies  greatly,  the  Holy 
Trinity  is  invoked,  and  fire  drawn  from  a  stone,  by  means  of  a 
steel,  three  times  in  succession.  The  sick  person  leaves  the  old 
hag  inspired  with  new  hope,  and,  since  time  cures  many  ills,  the 
faith  in  these  village  sibyls  will  not  soon  die  out. 

Healing  powers  were  attributed  not  only  to  spoken  but  written 
words.  The  words  chosen  for  this  purpose  were  usually  entirely 
meaningless,  or  taken  from  some  oriental  language.  For  the  less 
he  comprehends  their  meaning  the  more  is  the  patient  convinced 
of  their  deep  magical  significance.  Where  the  modern  physician 
prescribes  quinine  for  fever,  his  ancient  predecessors  prescribed 
the  simple  word  "Abracadabra,"  written  on  a-  piece  of  paper, 
which  was  swallowed  by  the  patient,  whereupon  the  fever  was 
expected  to  leave  the  body.  Small  triangular  slips  of  paper,  upon 
which  words  from  the  Bible  were  written  by  consecrated  hands, 
were  taken  by  women  in  difficult  confinements.  The  belief  was 
current  that  the  executioner,  as  the  servant  of  death,  could  issue 
passports  for  the  latter,  which  would  protect  the  bearer  from  the 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy, 


hangman,  from  death  and  wounds.  The  use  of  these  passports 
with  them  still  prevailed  among  the  soldiery  of  the  Thirty-years 
War.  The  methods  and  notions  involved  in  the  preparation  of 
amulets  demonstrate  what  a  powerful  factor  astrology  was  at  one 
time  in  medicine. 

The  custom  of  casting  the  patient's  horoscope  was  almost 
universal  during  the  Middle  Ages.  On  the  notion  of  a  relation- 
ship between  the  metals  and  the  planets,  elsewhere  described,  a 
metal  was  frequently  chosen  as  a  remedy,  which  bore  the  same 
name  as  the  planet  which  most  frequently  entered  the  constella- 
tion associated  with  the  patient's  being.  At  the  present  day, 
even,  many  people  will  take  a  vermifuge  only  at  the  waning  of 
the  moon.  A  foreboding  appears  to  have  permeated  the  notions 
entertained  in  the  Middle  Ages,  that  the  individual  members  of 
creation  held  a  certain  mutual  relationship  to  each  other  ;  no 
attempt  was  made  to  explain  this  interdependence  by  natural 
laws,  but  the  belief  was  accepted  of  a  magical  bond  which  united 
all  creation,  and  of  a  secret  sympathy  permeating  all  nature. 

The  preponderating  notion  that  the  world  was  created  for  the 
exclusive  benefit  of  man,  conditioned  an  affinity  between  the 
entire  cosmos  and  the  microcosm,  and  led  to  the  belief  that  the 
relationship  existing  between  certain  objects  in  nature  and  man, 
could  be  detected  either  by  outward  similarities  or  by  secret 
signs  and  agencies.  Such  notions  led  medicine  into  strange 
channels.  Remedies  were  consequently  not  administered  on  the 
principle  of  their  action,  but  because  of  their  supposed  sympa- 
thetic relationship  to  the  patient  or  his  disease.  Liverwort 
(Hepatica  triloba)  was  used  in  liver  disease,  because  its  leaves 
had  the  shape  of  that  organ,  and  on  the  brown  under-surface  its 
color.  Viper's  bugloss  (Echium  vulgare),  whose  flower  simulates 
a  snake's  head,  was  of  course  good  for  snake-bite.  Celandine 
(Chelidonium  majus)  was  looked  upon  as  a  present  from  heaven 
(cceli  donum),  since  its  yellow  flower  and  yellow  sap  were  con- 
clusive evidence  that  it  was  presented  to  man  by  the  Creator  to 
cure  jaundice.  Ramson  (Gladiolus  communis)  has  sword-like 
leaves,  and  its  bulbs,  covered  with  a  net-like  skin,  resemble  the 
meshes  of  an  armor,  all  of  which  demonstrated  that  Providence 
had  designed  this  plant  to  render  man  proof  against  the  acci- 
dents of  the  battlefield  ;  hence  the  old  knights  frequently  carried 


Medical  Superstition.  133 


one  of  these  roots  under  their  steel  armor,  believing  that  they 
were  thereby  not  only  protected  against  wounds,  but  were  ensured 
a  victory. 

At  the  present  day  roots  and  herbs  are  still  used  in  connection 
with  superstitious  practices.  Many  a  peasant  in  the  Black 
Forest,  at  Christmas-time,  buys  a  root  each  of  Radix  victorialis 
longa  and  Radix  victorialis  rotunda,  and  buries  this  pair  under 
the  door-sill,  hoping  thereby  to  banish  all  witches  and  demons 
of  disease,  which  are  prone  to  wander  about,  particularly  on 
Christmas  eve. 

The  peasant  of  the  Hartz  mountains  has  not  heard  of  the 
modern  scape-goats,  the  "bacteria."  When  his  milk  turns  blue, 
he  charges  this  to  witches.  To  protect  his  milk  from  them  noth- 
ing, in  his  opinion,  is  so  effective  as  the  blue-eyed  ground  ivy 
(Glechoma  hederacea).  He  winds  a  wreath  of  it,  and  on  the 
Maynight  "  Walpurgis'  night,"  when  the  witches  from  all  quarters 
of  the  globe  hold  high  carnival  on  the  Brocken,  he  milks  his 
cows  through  this  wreath  so  that  his  milk  shall  be  protected  for 
the  coming  year. 

It  was  considered  an  easy  matter  to  transfer  a  disease  to 
anything  with  which  it  had  a  secret  sympathy  (an  interchange- 
able term  for  affinity  and  relationship).  The  action  of  the  so- 
called  mummy  or  sympathetic  egg,  extensively  employed  by 
Theophrastus  Bombastus  Paracelsus,  of  Hohenheim,  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  and  by  his  followers,  the  so-called  Paracelsists, 
after  him,  was  accounted  for  on  this  notion.  To  prepare  this 
mummy  an  empty  chicken's  egg,  filled  with  warm  blood  from  a 
healthy  individual,  was  carefully  sealed  and  at  once  placed  under 
a  brooding  hen,  so  that  its  vitality  should  not  escape  with  the 
decreasing  temperature.  After  a  few  weeks  it  was  placed  in  an 
oven  and  subjected  to  heat  for  a  length  of  time  sufficient  to  bake 
bread.  An  egg  prepared  in  this  manner  was  supposed  to  cure 
every  disease ;  for,  as  the  blood  was  supposed  to  be  the  true 
seat  of  disease,  every  disease  would  naturally  have  a  greater 
affinity  for  this  egg  which  contained  blood  in  such  a  concen- 
trated form.  The  disease  being  thus  bound  to  escape  to  the 
sympathetic-  egg,  it  was  only  necessary,  for  a  cure  in  a  given 
case,  to  place  the  egg  in  contact  with  the  diseased  part  and  sub- 
sequently bury  it  in  the  earth. 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Trees  were  supposed  to  be  effective  mediums  to  charm  away 
disease.  Since  Judas  was  believed  to  have  hanged  himself  to 
an  elder  tree,  the  elder  was  supposed  to  possess  magical  powers. 
Inasmuch  as  the  administration  of  an  infusion  of  its  leaves 
causes  diaphoresis  and  heat,  the  tea  was,  on  the  principle  of 
"  Similia  similibus  curantur,"  credited  with  being  in  secret  sym- 
patfly  with  fevers,  and  would  cure  them  if  begged  to  do  so  in  a 
suppliant  mood.  For  this  reason,  at  the  present  day,  fever 
patients  in  North  Germany  repair  to  the  elder  tree,  and  speak 

these  words : 

"  O  beloved  elder  tree, 
Of  my  fever  set  me  free  ; 
Since  Tudas  false  from  you  did  hang, 
I  give  to  you  my  fev'rish  pang." 

The  patient  then  breaks  a  twig  from  the  tree  and  plants  it  in 
the  ground,  whereupon,  if  the  cure  progresses  as  it  should,  the 
fever  leaves  the  sufferer  and  follows  the  course  of  the  twig  into 
the  earth,  like  lightning  gliding  along  the  rod. 

The  price  of  the  drug,  also,  is  oftentimes  of  importance.  In 
north  Germany  seven,  and  in  France  nine,  are  preferred  num- 
bers. When  a  sibyl  buys  camphor  to  wear  in  a  bag  for  her 
rheumatism,  she  always  buys  nine-pence  worth,  as  otherwise  it 
would  not  help.  The  belief  was  current  that  certain  remedies 
could  cure  a  patient  in  absentia.  One  celebrated  remedy  of  this 
kind  was  the  wonderful  weapon  salve  of  Paracelsus,  which  con- 
sisted of  boar's  and  bear's  fat,  rain-worms,  hog's-brain,  yellow 
sandal,  mummy,  bloodstone  and  moss  from  the  skull  of  a  hanged 
criminal,  which  latter  was  to  be  gathered  at  the  waxing  of  the 
moon.  The  author  of  the  formula  says  :  "  The  virtues  of  this 
salve  are  remarkable,  for  with  it  you  can  heal  all  kinds  of 
wounds,  though  the  patient  be  miles  away,  provided  you  can  but 
secure  the  weapon  with  which  the  wound  was  inflicted.  This 
weapon  must  be  greased  once  a  day  with  this  salve,  then  tied  up 
in  a  clean  linen  cloth  and  preserved  in  a  warm  locality.  It 
should  be  protected  from  dust  and  cold  draughts,  otherwise  the 
patient  would  experience  great  pain  and  become  delirious. 
Although  this  cure  may  appear  supernatural,  and  consequently 
be  discountenanced  by  many,  I  can,  nevertheless,  assure  the 
reader  that  this  is  not  the  case,  for  those  initiated  in  the  natural 


Medical  Superstition.  135 


sciences  know  from  experience,  and  have  proven  by  diligent 
research,  that  .the  cure  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  certain 
magnetic  force  that  emanates  from  the  stars,  and  acts  upon  the 
salve,  conveying  the  latter's  magnetic  force  through  the  air  and 
to  the  wound." 

The  influence  exerted  by  astrology  on  medicine  in  those  days 
is  again  illustrated  here.  In  Hesse,  also,  according  to  popu- 
lar belief,  patients  were  cured  in  absentia.  In  the  case  of  a 
fractured  limb,  particularly  of  an  animal,  the  surgical  magician 
bandaged  the  broken  leg  of  a  table  or  chair,  at  the  same  time 
repeating  his  magic  rite.  The  bandaged  object  was  not  to  be 
interfered  with  for  nine  days,  when  at  the  expiration  of  this  time, 
not  the  broken  table-leg,  but  the  patient's  limb,  would  have 
re-united. 

At  all  times  man's  most  fervent  desire  has  been  to  lift  the 
veil  that  hides  from  him  the  future.  Hieronymus  Bock,  in  his 
"  New  Herb-Book  of  the  Actions  and  Names  of  Herbs  that 
Grow  in  Germany,"  Strassburg,  1551,  relates  that  the  large  gall- 
nuts  possess  the  property  of  disclosing  whether  the  coming  year 
will  be  a  prosperous  one,  or  whether  war  will  desolate  or  pesti- 
lence rule  the  land.  "  In  the  month  of  January  take  a  well-pre- 
served gall-nut,  and,  on  breaking  it  in  two,  you  will  find  one  of 
three  things,  a  fly,  a  maggot,  or  a  spider.  The  fly  denotes  war ; 
the  maggot,  hard  times;  and  the  spider,  disease."  The  vegetable 
excrescence  known  as  the  gall-nut  is  produced  by  the  deposit  of 
the  eggs  of  the  insect  (Cynips  gallae  tinctoria)  in  the  bark  and 
leaves  of  the  oak  (Quercus  infectoria).  This  causes  an  increased 
flow  of  sap  to  these  parts,  and  by  the  time  the  larvae  have  fairly 
developed,  they  find  themselves  thoroughly  protected  by  a  pulpy 
growth.  In  the  course  of  its  generative  metamorphosis  the  larva 
changes  into  a  chrysalis,  and  finally  into  the  gall  insect,  which 
escapes  from  the  gall-nut.  As  the  gall-insect  failed  to  protect  its 
discovery  of  the  process  of  manufacturing  gall-nuts,  other  insects, 
some  of  them  resembling  a  spider  more  than  a  fly,  encroach  upon 
its  prerogatives.  This  latter  fact,  coupled  with  the  different 
stages  of  development  in  which  the  gall-insect  is  found  during 
its  generative  changes,  accounts  for  the  various  specimens  of 
animal  life  met  with  in  the  gall-nut. 

The  healing  art  of  old  was  also  called  upon  to  prop  up  the 


136  .        History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

memory.  One  remedy  of  this  kind  is  the  fruit  of  Anacardium. 
"  One-half  ounce  of  this  taken  internally  strengthens  the  intel- 
lect, banishes  forgetfulness,  and  is  good  for  weakness  of  the  brain 
resulting  from  cold  or  moisture."  Many  of  these  superstitions 
still  persist  to  the  present  day.  The  "hoodoo"  and  the  "mas- 
cot "  play  an  active  part  in  modern  life.  Witchcraft  trials,  under 
a  modified  form,  have  recently  occurred  in  a  western  State  ;  and 
the  "  witch  doctress  "  is  in  use  in  Brooklyn.  The  old  fetichtic 
ideas  hold  their  own.  With  respectable  American  college  profes- 
sors proclaiming  their  belief  in  demon  possession  ;  with  medical 
journals  containing  articles  advocating  similar  doctrines ;  with 
Georgia  medical  dreamers  advocating  "  hairless  dogs "  in  the 
treatment  of  rheumatism  on  the  "  sympathy  "  principle  ;  with  the 
"hunchback"-touching  guard  against  disease  in  full  luxuriance 
in  an  Atlantic  city ;  with  vast  industries  devoted  to  the  manu- 
facture of  "patent"  medicines,  and  a  popular  press  teeming 
with  their  marvelous  virtues,  it  is  hardly  time  to  boast  about 
general  enlightenment,  and  acridly  criticise  the  Middle  Ages.  An 
age  which  accepts  remedies  prescribed  by  "  spirits,"  "  angels," 
etc.,  cannot  be  too  tolerant  of  the  errors -of  preceding  periods. 


ie  of  &ot>e. 


Thou'lt  find,  this  drink  thy  blood  compelling, 
Each  woman  beautiful  as  Helen." 


—FAUST. 


(138) 


cy  anft   illnnic  of  COO 


|HE  important  part  which  "love"  plays  in  the  drama 
of  life,  prepares  us  for  the  discovery  that  men 
and  women,  at  a  very  early  period,  resorted  to 
magical  influences  for  exciting  the  affections. 
The  belief  existed  among  the  older  nations,  as 
among  the  lower  orders  to-day,  that  there  were  magical  and 
physical  agents  by  means  of  which  one  person  could  secure 
the  passionate  love  of  another.  The  belief  in  the  magical 
agents  was  a  survival  of  the  teachings  of  fetichism.  The  belief 
in  the  physical  agents  arose  from  the  influence  certain  drugs 
were  observed  to  exert  on  the  mind.  From  the  "  wine  which 
maketh  glad  the  heart  of  man,"  to  the  "grief  dispelling  ne- 
penthe "  of  Homer,  was  but  a  step.  Nepenthe  was  presented 
by  Helen  to  Telemachus  at  the  house  of  Menelaus  the  Good, 
that  he  might  forget  his  sorrows.  The  formula  for  this  drink 
had  been  obtained  from  "  Polydamnoes,  wife  of  Thous  of  Egypt, 
where  the  rich  earth  brings  forth  precious  but  also  many 
dangerous  herbs."  The  composition  of  Homer's  "nepenthe" 
cannot  now  be  determined,  but  it  seems  certain  that  the  "nepen- 
thes destillatoria  "  of  Linnaeus  was  not  its  source.  It  has  been 
asserted  that  it  was  prepared  from  the  Egyptian  henbane  (hyos- 
cyamus  datura  and  albus)  used  by  the  priests  to  appease  the 
evil  principle.  Typhon  Miquel*  declares  that  the  poppy,  whose 
properties  were  known  before  the  days  of  Hippocrates,  corre- 
sponds most  to  the  description  given  of  vrjitevSeS.  It  has  been 
said  that  it  was  a  decoction  of  Indian  Hemp,  whose  intoxicating 
properties  were  known  from  a  very  remote  period. 

*  Homeric  Flora.  (139) 


I40  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

Herodotus,  "Father  of  History,"  says  that  the  "Scythians 
place  in  the  ground  three  stakes  inclining  toward  each  other,  and 
fasten  woolen  blankets  tightly  over  them.  In  the  space  between 
the  stakes  is  a  pan  filled  with  red-hot  stones.  There  grows  in 
their  country  a  species  of  hemp  which  resembles  flax,  only  it  is 
taller  and  thicker.  The  Scythians  throw  the  seeds  of  this  hemp 
upon  the  hot  stones,  when  immediately  a  thick  vapor  arises, 
more  dense  than  in  a  Grecian  sweat-bath.  This  steaming  takes 
the  place  of  a  bath  with  the  Scythians,  and  under  its  influence 
they  give  utterance  to  shouts  of  delight."  Hasheesh  is  still 
extracted  from  gunjah,  the  leaves,  flowers  and  fruits  of  the  female 
hemp  plant.  This,  in  Mohammedan  countries,  takes  the  place  of 
alcoholic  drinks,  and  was  used  by  the  "  Old  Man  of  the  Moun- 
tain "  to  transport  his  dupes  to  an  imaginary  paradise  filled  with 
houris.  In  moderate  doses  it  produces  cheerfulness,  and  hence 
has  been  used  in  the  treatment  of  melancholia.  The  Asiatics 
call  it  the  "Exciter  of  Desire,"  the  "Cementer  of  Friendship" 
and  the  "Laugh  Provoker."  "  Bang,"  used  by  the  Malays  as  an 
intoxicant,  contains  hasheesh.  As  hasheesh,  bang  and  opium 
(when  smoked)  produce  voluptuous  visions  and  sensations,  the 
conclusion  was  naturally  drawn  that  these  or  similar  agents  could 
produce  love.  The  older  fetichism  also  gave  rise  to  the  belief 
in  the  love  charm.  From  the  two  conceptions  sprang  the  Greek 
myth  Circe.  The  traffic  in  charms  was  not  so  dangerous  as  that 
in  philters,  which  were  an  early  source  of  revenue  to  the  Greeks. 
The  results  of  this  traffic  were  so  infamous  that  it  was  forbidden 
by  Lycurgus  and  Solon,  whose  laws  crushed  out  the  native  dealers. 
Later,  foreign  sorceresses  gained  a  foothold  on  Grecian  soil. 
Keramiekos,  "the  Potters'  Quarter"  of  Athens,  where  laborers 
and  tradespeople  dwelt,  swarmed  with  Phrygian  and  Thessalian 
hags  who  sold  poisons,  aphrodisiacs  and  love-charms.  The 
majority  of  these  substances  were  no  doubt  narcotics. 

In  ancient  times  the.  mandrake  (Mandragora  officinalis), 
which  grows  very  abundantly  in  Greece,  enjoyed  the  greatest 
reputation  as  a  philter.  For  ages  it  had  been  reputed  to  have 
magical  properties.  It  is  probably  referred  to  by  Homer  when 
speaking  of  the  excellent  remedy  that  Hermes  gave  to  Odysseus 
to  counteract  the  charmed  draught  administered  by  Circe  ; 
"Black  is  its  root,  and  milk-white  its  flower,  Moly  'tis  named  by 


Pharmacy  and  Magic  of  Love.  141 

the  gods  ;  For  mortals  'tis  difficult  to  dig  it,  but  to  celestials  all 
is  possible."  The  black,  carrot-like  root,  which  in  its  lower  half 
frequently  parts  into  two  branches,  and  is  beset  by  small  hirsute 
filaments,  somewhat  resembles  the  human  form,  whence  the 
name  given  by  Pythagoras,  dvSpaoitonopcpr] — man-like  shape. 
Columella  called  it  the  "  Planta  semihominis"  —  half-man  plant. 


altaimmatt  cclmttfalcatm  fraro  ceMi  c 

Fig.  73-  FiS"  74> 

MALE   MANDRAKE.  FEMALE   MANDRAKE. 

Pliny  the  Elder  says  that  "overindulgence  in  it  will  cause  death, 
but  in  moderation  it  produces  a  gentle  soporific  effect.  An  in- 
fusion of  it  is  taken  for  snake-bite,  and  is  given  before  operations 
•to  dull  the  senses,  for  in  some  instances  the  mere  smelling  of  it 
will  induce  sleep."  Frontinus  says  that  Marhabel,  when  sent  by 


142 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


the  Carthaginians  to  subdue  the  rebellious  Africans,  used  this 
soporific  quality  of  mandrake  to  vanquish  the  enemy.  He  placed 
mandrake  in  wine,  and  feigning  a  retreat,  allowed  this  to  fall 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  who,  drinking,  fell  into  deep  slum- 
ber and  were  easily  captured. 

Dioscorides,  Pliny,  and  later  botanists,  differentiate  between 
male  and  female  plants,  probably  varieties  of  the  same  species. 
Dioscorides  calls  the  male  "Morion,"  and  the  female,  "  Thrida- 
cias."  The  "  Ortus  sanitatis,"  of  1486,  has  figures  of  two  man- 
drakes reproduced  in  figures  73  and  74. 

The  artist  enormously  exaggerated  the  natural  appearance  of 
the  roo  s. 

The   King  James   version   of    the  Bible   says   that   Reuben, 
gathered  mandrake,  and  his  mother,  Leah,  bribed 
Rachel,*  the  favorite,  with  them,  to  permit  her 
to  enjoy  Jacob's  affection. 

The  old  chap  books  turned  the  biblical  story 
into  the  use  of  mandrake  root,  as  a  philter,  by 
Leah.  It  therefore  gained  great  repute  as  a  love 
potion  in  the  period  antecedent  to  the  "Refor- 
mation." Theriac  dealers  and  hunters  carved 
the  roots  into  shapes  resembling  little  men  and 
women,  and  often  substituted  the  root  of  Bry- 
onia.  They  then  sunk  grass  and  millet-seeds 
into  the  head  part,  and  buried  these  in  moist 
ground  until  filaments  grew  which  resembled 
hair.  When  dried,  these  figures  were  called 
mandrakes,  and  were  bought  at  a  high  price  for 
household  deities.  In  secret  they  were  richly 
dressed,  received  a  share  of  each  meal,  and  Fig 

were  bathed  in  wine  on  Saturday  evening.   They,        MANDRAKE. 
like  "fern-seed,"  had  the  power   to  confer   invisibility.     They 
made  the  poor  rich,  healed  all  diseases,  and  made  their  owner 
fortunate  in  love. 

Figure  75  represents  one  of  these  mandrakes  now  in  the 
Germanic  Museum  at  Nuremburg. 

The  price  of  the  root  was  enhanced  by  the  story  that  it  grew 
under  the  gallows  of  a  victim  of  a  judicial  murder,  and  could 

*  Genesis  xxx,  14-16. 


Pharmacy  and  Magic  of  Love. 


'43 


only  be  dug  at  great  risk  to  life,  since  that  its  horrible  shrieks, 
when  drawn  from  the  earth,  might  strike  the  hearer  dead.  In 
gathering  it  the  ears  had  to  be  closed  with  wax.  One  end  of  a  rope 
was  tied  to  the  root,  and  the  other  to  a  black  dog,  who  perished 
in  pulling  it  out.  Figure  76  (a  reduced  copy  of  a  fifteenth  cen- 
tury picture,  in  the  Germanic  Museum),  represents  this  procedure. 


Fig.  76. 

As  an  additional  precaution,  the  digger  blows  a  horn  to  drown 
the  death-dealing  shrieks  of  the  mandrake.  Goethe,  on  one 
occasion  refers  to  this  tradition  : 

"  One  twaddles  and  rants  about  the  black  dog, 
Another  prates  and  dotes  on  the  mandrake." 

Even  Pliny  speaks  of  the  dangers  associated  with  the  digging, 
of  the  mandrake.  "Whoever  would  dig  it  must  avoid  having  the 
wind  against  him,  and  when  he  digs  should  face  in  the  direction 
of  the  setting  sun." 


144 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


Another  love  charm  employed  by  the  Greeks  was  the  Thes- 
salian  herb  "  Catananche,"  which  cannot  now  be  identified. 
The  modern  "Catananche  coerulea"  is  identical  with  the 
"Datisca  cannabina "  of  Dioscorides.  Pliny  mentions  Cata- 
nanche very  briefly,  as  follows  :  "  For  the  purpose  of  exposing 
this  humbug,  it  suffices  to  say,  that  the  only  reason  that  this 
plant  was  supposed  to  possess  powers  to  charm,  was  because 
that,  upon  drying,  it  assumed  a  shape  somewhat  resembling  the 
talons  of  a  hawk."  On  the  basis  of  this  meagre  report,  some 
feel  justified  in  declaring  it  to  be  "  Ornithopus  compressus,"  or 
the  Astragalus  pugniformis.  Properties  similar  to  those  of 
Catananche  were  ascribed  to  the  plant  "Cemos,"  probably  the 
Plantago  cretica. 

When  these  physical  agents  did  not  produce  the  desired 
result,  or  when  they  produced  grave  mischief,  incantations 
were  employed  to  secure  the  love  so  much  coveted.  Theocritus, 
who  lived  at  Syracuse  300  B.  C.,  vividly  describes  these  incanta- 
tions in  his  "Sorceress."  The  enamored  Simaetha,  a  maid  of 
Syracuse,  finding  herself  betrayed  and  slighted  by  her  beloved 
Delphis,  determines  upon. regaining  his  love  by  charms  and 
incantations.  For  this  purpose  she  repairs  with  her  servant, 
Thestylis,  by  the  light  of  the  moon,  to  the  cross-roads  between 
the  city  and  the  sea.  The  object  of  their  incantations  is  to 
cause  the  person,  on  whom  the  charm  is  designed  to  work,  to 
suffer  like  the  inanimate  objects  used  in  the  ceremonial.  She 
begins  the  rite  by  encircling  the  cauldron  with  bands  of  finest 
wool.  She  then  calls  upon  the  gentle  Selene,  and  the  repulsive 
Hecate  (whom  Theocritus  identifies  with  Artemis),  to  assist  her. 
Hecate,  thought  to  be  a  three-headed,  snake-haired  and  snake- 
footed  witch  of  extraordinary  size,  disguised  in  black,  and 
accompanied  by  giant  dogs,  wandered  about  at  midnight,  and 
as  she  loitered  about  the  cross-roads  was  called- the  cross-roads 
goddess.  At  the  beginning  of  the  incantation  proper,  Simaetha 
spins  a  top,  and  during  the  incantation,  whilst  sacrificing  the 
necessary  objects,  she  speaks  the  following  words,  in  which  she 
discloses  all  the  varied  emotions  of  a  rejected  lover  : 


Pharmacy  and  Magic  of  Love. 


'  Where  are  my  laurels  ?  and  my  philters,  where  ? 
Quick  bring  them,  Thestylis — the  charm  prepare  ; 
This  purple  fillet  round  the  cauldron  strain, 
That  I  with  spells  may  prove  my  perjur'd  swain  ; 
For  since  he  rapt  my  door  twelve  days  are  fled, 
Nor  knows  he  whether  I'm  alive  or  dead  ; 
Perhaps  to  some  new  face  his  heart's  inclined, 
For  love  has  wings,  and  he  a  changeful  mind. 
To  the  Palaestra  with  the  morn  I'll  go, 
And  see  and  ask  him,  why  he  shuns  me  so  ? 
Meanwhile  my  charms  shall  work  :  O  queen  of  night ! 
Pale  moon,  assist  me  with  refulgent  light ; 
My  imprecations  I  address  to  thee, 
Great  goddess,  and  infernal  Hecatfe 

Stain'd  with  black  gore,  whom  even  gaunt  mastiffs  dread, 
Whene'er  she  haunts  the  mansions  of  the  dead ; 
Hail,  horrid  Hecatfe  !  and  aid  me  still 
With  Circe's  power,  or  Perimeda's  skill, 
Or  mad  Medea's  art, — Restore,  my  charms, 
My  lingering  Delphis  to  my  longing  arms." 

'  The  cake's  consum'd — burn,  Thestylis,  the  rest 
In  flames  ;  what  frenzy  has  your  mind  possest  ? 
Am  I  your  scorn,  that  thus  you  disobey, 
Base  maid,  my  strict  commands  ? — Strew  salt  and  say, 
'  Thus  Delphis'  bones  I  strew, — Restore,  my  charms, 
The  perjur'd  Delphis  to  my  longing  arms.'  " 

'  Delphis  inflames  my  bosom  with  desire  ; 
For  him  I  burn  this  laurel  in  the  fire  ; 
And  as  it  fumes  and  crackles  in  the  blaze, 
And  without  ashes  instantly  decays, 
So  may  the  flesh  of  Delphis  burn, — My  charms, 
Restore  the  perjur'd  Delphis  to  my  arms. 

1  As  melts  this  waxen  form,  by  fire  defac'd, 
So  in  love's  flames  may  Myndian  Delphis  waste  ; 
And  as  this  brazen  wheel,  tho'  quick  roll'd  round, 
Returns,  and  in  its  orbit  still  is  found, 
So  may  his  love  return, — Restore  my  charms, 
The  lingering  Delphis  to  my  longing  arms. 

:  I'll  stew  the  bran,  Diana's  power  can  bow 
Rough  Rhadamanth,  and  all  that's  stern  below, 
Hark  !  hark  !     The  village  dogs  !  the  goddess  soon 
Will  come — the  dogs  terrific  bay  the  moon — 
Strike,  strike  the  sounding  brass, — Restore,  my  charms, 
Restore  false  Delphis  to  my  longing  arms. 


I46  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

"  Calm  is  the  ocean,  silent  is  the  wind, 
But  griefs  black  tempest  rages  in  my  mind, 
I  burn  for  him  whose  perfidy  betray 'd 
My  innocence  ;  and  me,  ah,  thoughtless  maid  ! 
Robb'd  of  my  richest  gem,— Restore,  my  charms, 
False  Delphis  to  my  long-deluded  arms. 

"  I  pour  libations  thrice,  and  thrice  I  pray  ; 
O  shine,  great  goddess,  with  auspicious  ray . 
Whoe'er  she  be,  blest  nymph  !  that  now  detains 
My  fugitive  in  Love's  delightful  chains  ; 
Be  she  forever  in  oblivion  lost, 
Like  Ariadne,  'lorn  on  Dia's  coast, 
Abandon'd  by  false  Theseus,— O,  my  charms, 
Restore  the  lovely  Delphis  to  my  arms. 

41  Hippomanes,  a  plant  Arcadia  bears, 

Makes  the  colts  mad,  and  stimulates  the  mares, 
O'er  hills,  thro'  streams  they  rage  ;     O,  could  I  see 
Young  Delphis  thus  run  madding  after  me, 
And  quit  the  fam'd  Palrestra  !     O,  my  charms, 
Restore  false  Delphis  to  my  longing  arms. 

««  This  garment's  fringe,  which  Delphis  wont  to  wear, 
To  burn  in  flames  I  into  tatters  tear. 
Oh,  cruel  Love  !  that  my  best  life-blood  drains 
From  my  pale  limbs,  and  empties  all  my  veins, 
As  leeches  suck  young  steeds, — Restore,  my  charms, 
My  lingering  Delphis  to  my  longing  arms. 

41  A  lizard  bruis'd  shall  make  a  potent  bowl, 
And  charm,  to-morrow,  his  obdurate  soul ; 
Meanwhile  this  potion  on  his  threshold  spill, 
Where,  though  despis'd,  my  soul  inhabits  still ; 
.       No  kindness  he  nor  pity  will  repay  ; 

Spit  on  the  threshold,  Thestylis,  and  say, 

•Thus  Delphis'  bongs  I  strew', — Restore,  my  charms, 

The  dear,  deluding  Delphis  to  my  arms. 

— FAWKE'S  THEOCRITUS, 

(Idyllum  II,  Pharmaceutica)." 

Lucian,  the  satirist,  who  lived  three  hundred  years  after 
Theocritus,  describes  a  love  incantation  in  a  dialogue  between 
Melitta  and  Bacchis  : 

"Bacchis— There  is,  dear  friend,  an  able  sorceress  in  Syria.  Her  methods, 
Melitta,  are  simple  ;  she  takes  but  a  drachma  and  a  loaf  of  bread,  and  upon 
this  seven  obolus  must  also  lie,  some  salt,  sulphur  and  a  torch.  These  she 


Pharmacy  and  Magic  of  Lore.  147 

takes,  and  a  jug  of  wine  is  procured,  and,  if  possible,  a  piece  of  clothing  or  the 
slippers  "- 

"  Melitta — I  have  his  slippers  !  " 

"  Bacchis—  These  she  hangs  from  a  nail,  and  under  them  burns  the  sulphur, 
and  of  the  salt  she  also  throws  some  into  the  fire.  During  this  act  she  speaks 
the  names  of  both  parties,  yours  and  his.  Then  she  draws  a  top  from  her 
bosom  and  spins  it,  whilst,  with  fluent  tongue,  she  repeats  a  magic  rite  in 
barbarous  and  dreadful  sounding  words.  This  is  the  way  in  which  she  did  it 
that  time,  and  shortly  thereafter  Phanias,  in  spite  of  his  comrades'  jeers  and  the 
entreaties  of  Phoebe,  with  whom  he  was  together,  returned  to  my  arms, 
evidently  in  consequence  of  this  incantation." 

The  Greeks  used  aphrodisiac  preparations,  which  were  termed 
Satyrion,  from  the  satyrs,  the  symbols  of  sensuality.  These  satyr- 
ions  were  often  composed  of  orchids,  chosen  on  account  of  the 
suggestive  shape  of  their  bulbs.  They  were  often  destitute  of 
aught  but  imaginary  aphrodisiac  properties.  Pliny  says  that  their 
properties  often  became  manifest  when  taken  into  the  hand,  but 
were  much  more  powerfully  developed  when  taken  in  dry  wines. 
Dogwort  (Anacamptis  pyramidalis),  which  has  two  bulbs,  one 
withered  and  the  other  fresh  and  juicy,  is  called  cynosorchis  by 
Theophrastus,  who  says  that  in  Thessaly  the  men  drink  the 
larger  fresh  root  in  goat's-milk  as  an  aphrodisiac,  and  the  smaller 
as  a  sexual  sedative.  They  are  therefore  antagonistic.  This 
belief  in  the  aphrodisiac  powers  of  the  orchid  was  almost  univer- 
sal, and  survives  to-day  in  the  popular  designation  of  the  bulb- 
pair,  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  as  "Adam  and  Eve." 
Among  the  Northern  nations  the  legend  was  prevalent  that  the 
giantess,  Brana,  presented  Bronn-grass  to  her  love,  Halfdan,  while 
Freya  (the  goddess  of  love),  presented  Freya-grass  to  those  she 
met.  Both  "grasses"  were  orchids.  The  plant  Cratsegis  was 
also  used  in  satyrion.  Of  it  two  varieties  were  mentioned, 
"  Thelygonos,"  the  girl-producing,  and  "Androgonos,"  the  boy- 
producing  kind.  They  are  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the 
mercury-weed  (Mercurialis  tomentosa),  which  belongs  to  the 
Dicecia. 

The  superstitions  associated  with  these  bulbs  no  doubt 
sprung  from  their  peculiar  shape,  for,  in  antiquity,  the  action  of 
the  drugs  was  supposed  to  depend  on  similarities  and  secret  signs. 
Pliny  further  mentions,  as  ingredients  of  love-charms,  the  "  Ster- 
gethron"  (Sempervivium  tectorum),  "  Horminos  agrios  "  (Salvia 


I48  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

silvestris,"  and  the  "  sea-fennel"  (Crithmum  maritimum),  which 
latter  Hecate  served  to  Theseus  at  table  as  a  vegetable. 

The  practice  of  love-magic  by  the" Egyptians  is  evident  from 
numerous  formulae  on  the  papyri  unearthed  by  Ebers,  who,  in  his 
"  Uarda,"  gives  an  exquisite  picture  of  an  old  sorceress  Hekt. 
Paaker,  the  villain  of  the  story,  enters  her  cave  to  secure  a  love- 
charm.  "  At  the  side  of  the  sorceress  was  a  wheel  suspended 
between  the  teeth  of  a  wooden  fork,  and  kept  in  perpetual- 
motion.  A  large  coal-black  tom-cat  cowered  at  her  side,  and 
sniffed  at  the  heads  of  crows  and  owls  deprived  of  their  eyes. 
When  Paaker  entered  the  cave,  the  old  crone  shrieked  :  'Does 
the  water  boil  ?  Then  throw  in  the  ape's  eye  and  the  ibis  feather, 
and  the  linen  rags  with  the  black  signs.  *  *  *  This  alone 
binds  hearts.  Three  is  the  man  ;  Four  is  the  woman  ;  and  Seven 
the  indivisible  ! '  " 

The  grammarian,  Apion,  of  Oasis,  in  Egypt,  who  lived  during 
the  reign  of  the  Emperors  Tiberius  and  Claudius,  maintains, 
according  to  Pliny,  that  the  mere  touching  the  herb  Anacamp- 
seros  (Sedum  anacampseros),  would  rekindle  love,  even  should 
hate  have  usurped  its  place. 

At  no  time  was  there  more  barefaced  deception  practiced 
with  oracles,  spirits  and  conjurations  ;  never  was  the  trade  of  the 
juggler  and  sorceress  easier  or  more  lucrative,  and  nowhere  was 
the  art  of  preparing  love-charms  better  developed,  than  at  Rome 
during  the  reign  of  the  first  emperors.  The  riches  garnered  in 
this  capital  of  the  world  lent  an  air  of  ease  to  life,  which  led  to 
all  sorts  of  -demoralizing  practices. 

Attempts  were  often  made  to  exchange,  by  magical  or  medici- 
nal means,  these  riches  for  the  love  so  much  courted  and  coveted 
by  mankind  in  all  ages.  In  this,  the  Sagse  and  Medicae  willingly 
lent  a  helping  hand.  These  closely  allied  Sagas  and  Medicae 
came  from  the  ranks  of  immoral  crones,  who  not  only  plied  a 
lucrative  trade  in  love-charms  but  treated  venereal  diseases, 
practiced  abortion,  and  in  cold  blood  suffocated  burdensome 
newly-born  infants  in  the  folds  of  their  dress.  In  the  vile  dens 
of  these  unprincipled  women,  the  deadly  Halicacabum,  pre- 
pared from  the  winter  cherry  (Physalis  somnifera)  and  the  com- 
mon night-shade  (Solanum  nigrum),  was  kept  on  sale  for  the 
removal  of  inconvenient  rivals. 


Pharmacy  and  Magic  of  Love,  149 

In  reviewing  the  various  Trychnos  or  Strychnos  species, 
Pliny  states  that  the  Halicacabum,  "in  the  dose  of  one  drachm, 
awakens  carnal  desires,  and  causes  visionary  forms  and  pictures 
to  appear  as  real.  Double  this  dose  will  cause  actual  madness, 
and  a  further  increase,  death."  At  night  the  Sagse  culled  poison- 
ous herbs,  and  took  bones  and  hair  from  the  dead  with  which 
to  prepare  the  vile  decoctions  used  by  them. 

Horace,  who  one  night  met  the  notorious  Canidia  (mentioned 
by  several  Roman  writers)  on  the  yEsquilian  Hill,  the  "  Potter's 
Field  "  of  Rome,  thus  describes  her  practices  : 

"  But  oh  !  nor  thief,  nor  savage  beast, 
That  used  these  gardens  to  infest, 
E'er  gave  me  half  such  care  and  pains 
As  they,  who  turn  poor  people's  brains 
With  venom' d  drug  and  magic  lay — 
These  I  can  never  fright  away. 
For  when  the  beauteous  queen  of  night 
Uplifts  her  head  adorn'd  with  light, 
Hither  they  come,  pernicious  crones ! 
To  gather  poisonous  herbs  and  bones. 
Canidia,  with  dishevelled  hair, 
(Black  was  her  robe,  her  feet  were  bare), 
With  Sagana,  infernal  dame  ! 
Her  elder  sister,  hither  came. 
With  yellings  dire  they  fill'd  the  place, 
And  hideous  pale  was  cither's  face. 
Soon  with  their  nails  they  scrap' d  the  ground, 
And  filled  a  magic  trench  profound 
With  a  black  lamb's  thick  streaming  gore, 
Whose  members  with  their  teeth  they  tore, 
That  they  may  charm  some  sprite  to  tell 
Some  curious  anecdote  from  hell. 
The  beldams  then  two  figures  brought ; 
Of  wool  and  wax  the  forms  were  wrought ; 
The  woolen  was  erect  and  tall, 
And  scourg'd  the  waxen  image  small, 
Which  in  a  suppliant,  servile  mood, 
With  dying  air  just  gasping  stood. 
On  Hecate  one  beldam  calls  ; 
The  other  to  the  furies  bawls, 
While  serpents  crawl  along  the  ground, 
And  hell-born  bitches  howl  around. 
The  blushing  moon,  to  shun  the  sight, 
Behind  a  tomb  withdrew  her  light." 

—FRANCIS'  HORACE  (Satire  VII). 


! 50  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

One  of  Canidia's  decoctions  was  known  as  the  "cup  of 
desire,"  but  the  ingredients  of  this  draught  have  not  been 
preserved. 

According  to  the  tradition,  the  most  common  ingredient  of 
Roman  philters  was  the  "  Hippomane."  This,  Pliny  states,  was 
said  to  possess  such  powers,  that  a  brazen  mare,  in  the  casting 
of  which  Hippomane  had  been  incorporated,  caused  stallions 
brought  in  its  vicinity  to  be  transported  with  passion.  The  old 
writers  differ  much  as  to  the  nature  and  origin  of  this  drug.  At 
all  events  it  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  mancinella  tree 
(Hippomane  Mancinella),  whose  shade,  as  the  legend  says,  will 
cause  the  death  of  the  person  sleeping  in  it.  According  to 
Theocritus  it  was  an  Arcadian  herb,  on  eating  which  the  horses 
became  frantic.  Pliny,  however,  says  :  "  On  the  forehead  of  a 
new-born  colt  is  found  a  fleshy  protuberance,  which  is  swallowed 
by  the  mother  before  allowing  the  colt  -to  suckle.  This  fleshy 
growth  was  used  by  the  Sagae  in  the  preparation  of  Hippomane." 
Ovid  and  Juvenal  adopt  this  view  of  the  nature  of  Hippomane. 
This  matter  admits  of  a  very  simple  explanation.  The  colts,  like 
the  young  of  most  animals,  when  born,  are  surrounded  by  a  mem- 
brane. To  facilitate  the  liberation  of  the  colt,  the  mother 
swallows  this  and  the  afterbirth.*  During  this  process  a  liquid, 
frequently  mixed  with  a  dark,  solid  mass,  escapes,  which  latter 
was  collected  and,  in  all  probability,  was  used  in  the  preparation 
of  the  drug.  Evidently  Hippomane  was  already  in  part  classed 
with  the  "  Aphrodisiaca  "  which  the  Sagae  prepared,  and  which 
had  actual  aphrodisiac  properties. 

Satyrion  is  mentioned  in  the  "  Satyricon  "  of  Petronius,  which 
was  written  to  satirize  Nero.  From  the  description  there  given, 
this  potion  seems  to  have  been  a  very  active  aphrodisiac.  As  a 
rule,  these  drinks  were  known  as  "Aquae  amatrices,"  and  were 
very  much  in  vogue  among  the  Romans.  Substances  of  the  most 
varied  origin  were  incorporated  in  these  infernal  decoctions. 
Gall  of  wild  boars,  ambergris,  turtle-eggs,  sea-mullets,  cuttlefish 
(the  latter  were  known  as  "  Uvse  marinae  "),  smelts,  cantharides, 
crickets  and  other  animals  and  their  products,  were  extracted 
by  wine.  The  plant-kingdom  contributed  its  share  to  these 
compounds.  According  to  Martial,  puff-balls,  probably  Lyco- 

*  Except  in  England. 


Pharmacy  and  Magic  of  Love.  151 

perdon  cervinum,  and  other  fungi,  were  also  employed.  Ovid 
mentions  a  number  of  these  substances,  all  of  which  were  more 
or  less  injurious,  and  had  many  victims.  Lucretius,  who,  in  his 
didactic  poem,  "  De  Rerum  Natura,"  advocated  the  philosophy 
of  Epicurus,  is  said  to  have  taken  his  life  during  the  delirium  of 
a  terrible  satyriasis  caused  by  these  draughts.  Lucullus,  the 
bon  vivant,  came  to  his  end  in  a  similar  manner.  His  freedman, 
Kalisthenes,  gave  him  a  love-drink  for  the  purpose  of  retaining 
his  good-will  forever,  from  the  effects  of  which  he  died.* 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  belief  in  philters  was  wide-spread. 
Gottfried,  of  Strassburg,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  states  that  the 
love  of  "  Tristan  and  Isolde,"  was  the  result  of  a  love-drink. 
The  mother  prepared  a  love-draught,  which  Isolde,  her  daughter, 
princess  of  Eyreland,  was  to  drink  with  her  betrothed,  King  Mark, 
upon  reaching  Cornwall.  By  a  servant's  oversight,  the  potion  is 
divided  between  Tristan  and  Isolde,  and  no  sooner  had  they 
tasted  of  it,  when  both  fell  deeply  in  love.  Although  the  author 
of  "  Tristan  and  Isolde,"  is  very  frank,  and  describes  lovers  in 
attitudes  which  modern  erotic  poets  pass  over  in  silence,  he  does 
not  disclose  the  ingredients  of  this  draught. 

In  Germany,  henbane  (Hyoscyamus  niger)  enjoyed  consider- 
able reputation  as  a  philter.  It  was  the  root  of  this  plant  which 
the  rat-catcher  of  Hamelin  employed  to  secure  a  kiss  from 
Regina,  the  proud  daughter  of  the  Burgomaster  Gruwelholt. 
The  sequel  of  this  beautiful  romance  reveals  that  during  the 
celebration  of  her  engagement  to  Heribert,  her  love  for  the  rat- 
catcher broke  out ;  and 

"  She  flew  to  the  arms  of  the  fiddler, 
And  love  distracted,  caressed  him." 

In  "  The  Book  of  Nature  "  of  Megenberg,  written  in  1350, 
various  herbs  are  recommended  as  philters.  "  The  vervain 
(Verbena  officinalis),  which  creates  love  between  man  and 
woman,  is  of  great  service  to  sorcerers ;  and  this  they  know  full 
well  that  have  been  in  the  net,  but  they  will  not  let  the  secret 
out."  Vervain,  in  Anglo-Saxon  countries,  hindered  "  witches  of 
their  will." 

Love-charms  begin  now  to  assume  a  purely  fetichtic  char- 

*  Plutarch,  chapter  45. 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


acter.  The  influence  of  Christianity  turned  the  inspired  sor- 
ceress of  pagan  days  into  witches.  The  Nicors  of  the  North- 
ern races  became  united  into  "  Old  Nick."  The  god  "Pan  "  of 
the  Romans  became  the  Devil.  The  superstitions  of  the  people 
did  not  vanish  but  became  changed.  Rites  which  had  been 
divine  became  devilish.  The  hysterical  females  and  nervous  men 
who  had  been  the  admired  of  the  gods  and  goddesses,  became 
the  devil's  brides  or  husbands,  the  incubi  and  succubi  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  The  witches  of  the  period,  like  the  fortune  tellers 
of  the  present  day,  sought  to  inspire  terror  in  order  to  secure 
power.  The  older  superstitions  descended  to  them  from  the 
traditional  practices  of  the  pagan  sorceress,  but  became  degraded 
into  the  older  fetichtic  ideas  of  the  soul  of  the  individual  enter- 
ing into  his  or  her  belongings,  whence  their  advocacy  and 
administration  of  so  many  disgusting  agents  for  awakening 
love.  They  advised  the  lover  to  secure  such  things  from  the 
adored  one  as  would  be  likely  to  possess  the  peculiarities  of 
the  individual  in  the  highest  degree.  The  hair,  nails  and  pieces 
of  soiled  linen  were  exceedingly  valued,  and  were  burned  to  ashes 
and  thus  administered  as  love  powders.  Females  frequently 
sent  their  chosen  ones  the  co-called  "  love-cakes,"  promising 
themselves  great  results  therefrom.  To  prepare  these  the  enam- 
ored fair  one  was  obliged  to  resort  to  a  peculiar  procedure.  She 
had  to  remove  all  her  clothing  in  the  presence  of  the  witch. 
Then,  lying  down,  a  board  was  strapped  to  her  loins,  upon  which 
a  small  stove  was  placed  in  which  the  cake  was  baked.  The 
heat  of  the  stove  imparted  a  perspiring  glow  to  the  maiden  which 
gave  the  bread  its  finishing  touch  and  flavor.  It  was  then  sent, 
while  still  warm,  to  her  indifferent  lover.  Suspecting  nothing, 
he  eats  ;  suddenly  the  blood  rushes  to  his  heart,  and  ardent  love 
for  the  devoted  bread-maker  possesses  him.  The  illustration  on 
the  title  page  of  this  chapter  (taken  from  an  oil  painting  in  the 
museum  at  Leipzig)  represents  such  a  labor  of  love.  The  ingre- 
dients evidently  possess  extraordinary  powers,  for  the  lover  has 
already  hastened  hither  and  appears  at  the  door  in  the  back- 
ground. 

Stimulating  aphrodisiacs  were  much  in  use  in  the  earlier 
centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages,  since  Avicenna  says  that  the 
plague-like  skin-diseases  of  the  ninth  century  were  largely  due  to 


Pharmacy  and  Magic  of  Love.  153 

these  drugs.  The  "  Diasatirion  "  of  Mesue  was  greatly  lauded. 
Of  its  properties  it  is  said  :  "Valet 'ad  erectionem  virgae,  multi- 
plicat  sperma  et  desiderium  coeundi."  Its  formula,  as  given  in 
the  Cordic  Dispensatory  of  1546,  is  reproduced  in  the  original, 
as  it  will  hardly  bear  effective  translation  : 

9  Secacul.  albi  et  mundi  et  elixati  in  decocto  Cicefum,  quorum  prima 
aqua,  in  qua  decoquebantur,  sit  effusa,  lib.  I 

Testiculorum  vulpis  unc.  VIII 
Radic.  raphani  unc.  Ill 
Rad.  Luph.  plani  unc.  II 

Terantur  hae  tres  radices  posteriores  et  infundatur  super  eas  lactis  bubuli 
aut  ovili   tantum,  ut  lac  duos  digitos  emineat,  ajiciendo 
Olei  sesami 

Butyri  recentis  non  saliti  ana  unc.  IIII 

Coquanter  cum  facilitate  usque  ad  consumptionem  lactis  et  donee  omnino 
remollitae  sint  radices  et  habeant  justarh  spissitudinem  instar  pultis  crassioris, 
nam  si  aqueum  quod  in  lacte  et  radicibus  est  non  consumatur,  situm  contrahit 
hoc  medicamentum.     Postea  adfunde  omnibus  hisce  praedictis  radicibus. 
Mellis  despumati  optimi  lib.   VI 
Succi  Caeparum  recentium  lib.  I  ft 

coque  omnia  simul  ad  perfectam  decoctionem  delude  ab  igne  depone,  et  insperge 
subsequentium  specierum  minutissimum  pulverem. 

Caudarum  Scinccium  renibus  et  semine  unc.  I 

Seminis  erucae 

Zingiberis 

Been  albi 

Been  rubei 

Linguae  avis,  id  est  semen  fraxini  arboris 

Semanis  nasturtii 

Cinnamomi 

Piperis  longi 

Seminis  Bauciae 

Seminis  napi 

Pulpae  seminis  Asparagi  maxime  recentis  ana  drach.  Ill 

Confice  cum  eis,  ultimo  vero  adjiceantur  subsequentia. 

Pinearum  mundatarum  lib.   I  ft 

Fisticorum,  id  est,  Pistaciorum  mundatorum  unc.  X 

Confice  et  misce  omnia  optime  et  aromatica  cum 

Moschi  boni  drach.  I 

The  parts'  of  the  wolf  and  skink  contained  in  the  formula, 
indicate  that  the  mixture  was  not  merely  intended  as  a  philter, 
but  served  on  occasions  as  a  remedy  for  impotence.  Signs, 
offering  love-charms  and  philters,  are  still  to  be  seen  in  certain 


I54  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

quarters  in  all  large  cities,  which  is  evidence  that  the  belief  in 
them  has  not  disappeared  from  nineteenth  century  civilization. 
Love-lorn  maidens  still  wend  their  way  to  the  drug-store  and 
puzzle  a  modest  clerk  with  a  demand  for  a  "  love-powder."  If 
he  were  to  hand  them  a  coal  with  the  advice  of  Goethe  : 

"  Take  this  coal,  with  it  do  thou  mark 
His  arm,  his  cloak,  or  his  shoulder  ; 
In  his  heart  a  pang  he'll  feel, 
But  the  coal  delay  not  to  swallow. 

"  Neither  of  wine  nor  of  water  dare  drink, 
And  this  night  at  your  door  he  will  sigh  ; 
This  coal  from  a  distant  land  cometh, 
On  a  funeral  pile  it  hath  reposed  "— 

they  would  leave  his  store  happy  and  contented,  and  try  the 
experiment  at  once.  Numerous  domestic  methods  are  still 
employed  to  capture  and  retain  the  love  of  others.  Many  an 
enamored  swain  in  northern  Germany  still  wears  about  him  for 
this  purpose  the  blood  of  a  bat,  or  the  heart  of  a  swallow,  or 
he  presents  his  love  with  an  apple  that  he  has  carried  in  his 
arm-pit  for  sometime.  The  efficacy  of  this  last  endeavor  will 
be  readily  accepted  by  the  adherents  of  Prof.  Jaeger's  fragrant 
soul-theory ;  for,  unquestionably,  the  apple  will  convey  to  the 
adored  one  some  particles  of  the  lover's  soul-substance  —  the 
"anthropin,"  whose  presence  Jaeger  easily  demonstrated  by 
neuro-analysis  with  Hipps  chronoscope,  but  which  the  skeptical 
chemists  continue  to.  call  by  the  names  kapron,  kaprin  and 
kapryl  acids. 

In  centra-distinction  to  love-provoking  methods,  a  belief  in 
love-destroying  agents  is  also  current  among  the  people.  Thus, 
lovers  must  not  present  each  other  with  sharp  instruments,  such  as 
scissors,  knives  and  needles,  iest  they  "  cut  love."  Many  similar 
notions,  current  at  the  present  time,  might  be  cited,  but  these 
suffice  to  show  how  deeply  the  superstitious  notions  concerning 
love-charms  are  rooted  in  the  human  mind.  Although  the  old 
forms  may  have  fa'len  away,  the  "  nameless  yearning  "  contin- 
ually develops  new  blossoms  on  the  old  trunk  of  superstition. 
These  fallacious  notions  certainly  nourished  more  luxuriantly  in 
antiquity,  when  the  exuberant  imagination  and  wanton  sensuality 


Pharmacy  and  Magic  of  Love. 


'55 


had  not  yet  been  hedged  in  by  a  progressive  intellectual  culture  ; 
still,  even  in  very  early  days,  an  occasional  warning  against  the 
foolish  belief  in  love-charms  is  heard.  Ovid  has  answered  the 
question,  "What  is  to  be  thought  of  love-philters?"  entirely  in 
conformity  with  modern  views. 


Fig.  77- 
(157) 


This  natural  process,  by  help  of  craft  then  consummate, 
Dissolveth  the  Elixir  in  its  unctious  humiditie, 
Then  in  balnea  of  Mary  together  let  them  circulate, 
Like  new  honey  or  oil,  till  they  perfectly  thick^d  be  ; 
Then  will  that  medicine  heal  all  manner  infirmity, 
And  turn  all  metal  to  Sonne  and  Moone  most  perfectly, 
Then  shall  you  have  both  great  Elixir  and  aurum  potabile, 
Ky  the  grace  and  will  of  God,  to  whom  be  laud  eternally." 

From  verses  dedicatory  of  George  Ripley  "  The  English  Alchemy st 
and  Canon  of  Bridlingtonf  addressed  to  King  Edward  IV. 


(158) 


Cfapter  (Efeuen. 


Alchemy:     Its    D cu clopiiic-n t  and  JBecItt 


IRANSMUTATION  of  the  metals,  the  dream  of  the 
alchemists,  was  abandoned  as  the  wildest  of  fancies 
after  the  discovery  of  the  "  elements"  now  recog- 
nized. Spectral  analysis  has,  however,  gradually 
aroused  suspicion  as  to  the  elementary  nature  of 
these  elements,  so  that  the  present  drift  of  chemical  thought  is 
well  represented  by  Mr.  Crookes  in  his  address  before  the  British 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  when  he  approv- 
ingly quoted  Faraday's  words  :  "  To  discover  a  new  element  is 
a  fine  thing,  but  if  you  could  decompose  an  element,  it  would  be 
a  discovery  indeed  worth  making.  ...  To  decompose  the  metals, 
then  to  reform  them,  to  change  them  from  one  to  another,  and  to 
realize  the  once  absurd  notion  of  transmutation,  are  the  problems 
now  given  to  the  chemist  for  solution." 

The  labors  of  the  alchemist  are  better  appreciated  to-day 
than  they  have  been  for  many  a  decade.  The  longing  for  truth 
which  inspires  modern  science,  inspired  these  old  votaries  of 
knowledge  in  a  degree  no  less  ardent  and  determined. 

The  dreams  of  the  early  alchemists  were  not  always  of  the 
sordid  type  ascribed  to  them,  although  the  necessity  of  securing 
aid  from  "practical"  capitalists  led  the  most  sincere  to  place 
the  "  gold-making  "  side  uppermost,  just  as  the  scientist  of  to-day 
dwells  on  the  "  practical  "  results  to  secure  the  aid  of  plutocrats 
who  are  indifferent  to  the  intellectual  riches  of  science.  The 
early  alchemists  assumed  the  trade  practices  and  designations  so 
common  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  disciples  were  called  "  fire 
philosophers"  or  alchemists,  answering  to  the  apprentices  of  the 


160  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

various  "crafts"  or  "mysteries,"  as  all  trades  were  then 
designated;  while  the  "masters"  of  the  trades  became  the 
"  adepts  "  of  the  alchemist.  In  consonance  with  the  spirit  of 
the  times  these  "  adepts  "  assumed  the  owl-like  self-satisfied  air 
of  concealed  wisdom  characteristic  of  those  who  had  reached 
the  height  of  a  "master"  of  a  "mystery"  or  "craft,"  and 
called  themselves  <?zAotfo<poS  nar  fZoxijY. 

They  are  usually  thought  of  as  old  men,  but  very  brief  reflec- 
tion dispels  this  notion.  Many  of  the  alchemists  did  their  best 
work  before  middle  age.  As  alchemy  and  astrology  occupied 
the  place  that  science  does  to-day,  it  was  but  natural  that  they 
should  cast  a  spell  over  young  and  enthusiastic  minds.  Like 
modern  science,  alchemy  captivated  the  best  and  highest  circles 
of  society.  Venerable  monks,  renowned  physicians,  illustrious 
university  professors,  mighty  statesmen,  pious  popes  and  crowned 
heads  were  worshippers  of  alchemy.  To  it  secret  hours  were 
given  in  secluded  chambers,  behind  fire-proof  laboratory  walls, 
where  they  labored  day  and  night  at  the  "Althanor,"  as  the 
blast-stove  of  the  fire-philosophers  was  called. 

Alchemy  is  usually  traced  to  the  teachings  of  Hermes  Tris- 
megistos,  and  is  hence  called  the  "hermetic"  art.  It  is  certain 
that  among  the  Egyptians  chemical  studies  were  a  favorite 
pursuit.  The  Ayrans  and  the  Chinese  were  also  devoted  to 
them,  and  at  a  very  early  period  they  had  thereby  discovered 
gunpowder.  Traces  of  their  teachings  and  those  of  the  Assyri- 
ans, who  also  paid  much  attention  to  these  studies,  had  been  left 
in  Central  Asia,  whence  they  had  been  brought  to  Rome  and 
Greece. 

About  400  A.  D.,  the  doctrine  of  the  transmutation  of  metals 
began  to  assume  prominence.  The  Greek  orator,  Themistus 
Euphrades,  in  his  eighth  speech,  incidentally  speaks  of  the 
transmutation  of  copper  into  silver  and  gold  as  a  universally 
accepted  fact.  Before  the  intellectual  vigor  produced  by  the 
contact  of  the  Crusaders  with  eastern  civilization  had  begun  to 
show  itself  in  Europe,  all  study  was  rather  quiescent  under  the 
turmoil  of  these  periods  of  "storm  and  stress."  Still  such  studies 
were  being  pursued,  for  the  works  of  Geber  of  Seville,  written 
in  the  ninth  century,  were  too  comprehensive  to  have  been  the 
first  beginning  of  the  science. 


Alchemy  :  Its  Development  and  Decline.  161 

From  the  time  of  the  Crusades  all  science  received  an  impe- 
tus. Alchemy  began  to  appear  prominently  in  the  tenth  and  the 
eleventh  centuries.  The  English  alchemist,  Hortulanus,  wrote  a 
Latin  paraphrase  of  the  "  Tabula  Smaragdina,"  which  was  said 
to  have  originated  with  Hermes  Trismegistos  and  occupied  a 
conspicuous  place  in  the  literature  of  the  alchemist.  A  transla- 
tion of  the  paraphrase  is  as  follows  : 

THE  EMERALD  TABLET  OF  HERMES  TRISMEGISTOS. 

These  are  the  words  of  the  secret  of  Hermes,  which  were  written  upon  the 
emerald  tablet,  found  in  a  dark  hole  where  the  body  of  Hermes  was  buried. 

Discoursing  as  follows  : 

True  it  is,  and  without  deceit,  certainly  and  truthfully,  that  which  is  below 
is  also  above,  and  that  which  is  above  is  made  like  all  things  by  one  thing ;  his 
father  is  Sol  and  his  mother  Luna.  The  wind  carried  him  in  its  bowels.  He 
was  nourished  by  the  earth,  which  is  father  of  all  secrets  of  the  world.  His 
power  is  absolute.  When  turned  to  the  earth,  it  separates  the  soil  from  the  fire, 
the  subtile  from  the  coarse  with  great  skill.  It  rises  from  the  earth  to  the  heaven, 
and  returns  from  the  heaven  to  the  earth,  and  takes  upon  itself  the  forces  of  all 
that  is  high  and  all  that  is  low.  Here  you  have  the  essence  of  the  world.  All 
poverty  and  darkness  will  flee  thee,  and  everything  comparable  to  darkness. 
Therefore  am  I  called  Hermes  Trismegistus,  possessing  the  three  parts  of  all 
philosophy.  All  this  has  come  to  pass  as  I  have  described.  ' 

Much  of  the  seeming  obscurity  of  alchemical  literature  was 
due  to  the  desire  to  prevent  the  feudal  barons,  and  other  thieves 
of  the  period,  from  seizing  on  the  adepts  who  thus  adopted 
secrecy  as  a  means  of  protection.  This  obscurity  long  remained 
in  science,  but  was  over-estimated  by  the  popular  miscomprehen- 
sion of  the  necessity  of  technical  terms.  The  seeming  jargon  of 
the  alchemists  was  not  greater  than  that  of  the  early  anatomists, 
which,  while  etymologically  jargon,  has  acquired  by  long-con- 
tinued usage  fixity  and  clearness  of  meaning. 

The  twelfth  century  witnessed  a  great  development  of  alchemy 
The  works  of  yEgidus  show  that  a  large  literature  was  being 
accumulated.  Albertus  Magnus  made  extensive  studies  in  the 
early  part  of  the  thirteenth  century.  By  his  chemical  labors, 
growing  out  of  the  search  for  the  "  elixir  of  life,"  and  the  "  phi- 
losopher's stone,"  he  paved  the  way  for  his  great  successor,  Roger 
Bacon,  who  attempted  to  systematize  all  the  knowledge  of  the 
time.  It  was  left  for  the  nineteenth  century  to  disentomb  his 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


works  from  the  alcoves  of  Oxford  library,  and  do  his  labors 
justice.  He  really  placed  the  study  of  chemistry  on  a  firm  basis. 
He  enthusiastically  pursued  the  search  for  the  "  philosopher's 
stone,"  and  the  "elixir  of  life."  He  introduced  gunpowder  into 
Europe.  Though  much  of  his  writings  seem  obscure,  yet  it  has 
been  aptly  said  by  Gordon,  "As  even  happens  in  more  recent 
times,  Roger  Bacon,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  concealed  much 
useful  information  under  that  jargon  of  languages  which  was  so 
fashionable  in  that  time."  Bacon  really  led  the  way  in  modern 
science  by  insisting  on  the  necessity  of  experiments  in  the 
acquirement.  In  all  respects  he  anticipated  the  inductive  phi- 
losophy of  his  famous  namesake,  Francis  Bacon.  The  inductive 
philosophy  was  the  great  gift  of  the  alchemists,  whose  experi- 
ments stood  out  in  bold  relief  for  their  usefulness  as  compared 
with  the  "word-  juggling"  of  the  Scotists  and  Thomists,  who  had 
captured  the  Universities.  Raymond  Lully  wrote  several  works 
on  alchemy  during  this  century,  which  were  accepted  authorities. 
His  discussion  of  the  "  tabula  smaragdina,"  was  the  "  authority  " 
on  that  subject,  then  one  of  importance. 

The  study  of  alchemy  took  on  such  proportions  in  the  four- 
teenth century  that  Pope  John  XXII,  who  later  became  a  devotee 
of  the  art,  condemned  the  hermetic  art  as  a  diabolical  deception, 
and  issued  a  severe  bull  to  restrict  its  practice.  The  sincere 
alchemists,  however,  claimed,  —  and,  judged  by  the  Pope's  subse- 
quent career,  this  claim  seems  justifiable,  —  that  this  bull  was  issued 
against  pretenders  and  swindlers  who  were  befouling  the  fair 
fame  of  alchemy  by  their  tricks.  Certainly  the  bull  was  taken 
in  this  sense  by  priests,  for  Canon  Ripley,  of  Bridlington,  Eng- 
land, in  the  fourteenth  century,  wrote  an  alchemical  work,  "  The 
Six  Chemical  Portals."  He  explains  that  alchemists  "  purposely 
use  mystic  language  to  discourage  the  fools,  for  although  we 
write  primarily  for  the  edification  of  the  disciples  of  the  art,  we 
also  write  for  the  mystification  of  those  owls  and  bats  that  can 
neither  bear  the  splendor  of  the  sun  nor  the  light  of  the  moon. 
On  these  we  practice  many  cabalistic  deceits,  which  harmonize 
with  their  ill-favored  fantasy."  Ripley  certainly  succeeded  in 
his  attempt  at  mystifying  his  readers,  for  his  formulas  are  so 
incongruous  and  contradictory  as  to  be  absolutely  unintelligible. 
This  is  well  illustrated  by  the  following  passage  : 


Alchemy:  Its  Development  and  Decline.  163 

"  The  bird  of  Hermes  is  my  name, 
Eating  my  wings  to  make  me  tame. 
In  the  sea  withouten  lesse 
Standeth  the  bird  is  Hermes — 
Fating  his  wings  variable, 
And  thereby  makete  himself  more  stable. 
When  all  his  feathers  be  agone 
He  standeth  still  there  as  a  stone  ; 
Here  is  now  both  white  and  red, 
And  also  the  stone  to  quicken  the  dead  ; 
All  and  some,  withouten  fable, 
Both  hard,  and  nesh,  and  malleable. 
Understand  now  well  aright, 
And  thanke  God  of  this  Light." 

Ripley  also  wrote  a  "  Compound  of  Alchemy."     He  was  a 
very  assiduous  student,  and  thus  describes  his  experience  : 

"  Many  amalgame  did  I  make, 

Wenyng  to  fix  these  to  grett  avayle, 

And  thereto  sulphur  dyd  I  take  ; 

Tarter,  eggs  whyts,  and  the  oyl  of  the  snayle, 

But  ever  of  my  purpose  dyd  I  fayle  ; 

For  what  for  the  more  and  what  for  the  lesse,     , 

Evermore  something  wanting  there  was." 

He  then  gives  a  long  list  of  ingredients,  and  concludes  : 

"  Thus  I  roastyd  and  boylyd,  as  one  of  Geber's  cooks, 
And  oft  tymes  my  wynning  in  the  asks  I  sought ; 
For  I  was  discevyd  wyth  many  false  books, 
Whereby  untrue  thus  truly  I  wrought ; 
But  all  such  experiments  avayled  me  nought  ; 
But  brought  me  in  danger  and  in  combraunce, 
By  losse  of  my  goods  and  other  grevaunce." 

The  swindling  alchemist  early  made  his  appearance,  and  was 
satirized  by  Chaucer  in  his  "  Canterbury  Tales." 

"  The  priest  him  busieth,  all  that  ever  he  can 
To  don  as  this  Chanoun,  this  cursed  man, 
Commandeth  him,  and  fast  blew  the  fire. 
For  to  come  to  the  effect  of  his  desire  ; 
And  this  Chanoun  right  in  the  meanwhile 
All  ready  was  this  priest  eft  to  beguile, 
And  for  a  countenance  in  his  hand  bare 
An  hollow  stick  (take,  keep,  and  beware), 
In  the  end  of  which  an  ounce,  and  no  more, 
Of  silver  limaille  put  was  as  before  ; 


j  64  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

"Was  in  his  coal,  and  stopped  with  wax  well 

For  to  keep  in  his  limaille  every  del. 

And  while  this  priest  was  in  his  business 

This  Chanoun  with  his  stick  gave  him  dresf, 

To  him  anon,  and  his  powder  cast  in, 

As  he  did  erst  (the  devil  out  of  his  skin) 

Him  turn,  I  pray  to  God,  for  his  falsehede), 

For  he  was  ever  false  in  thought  and  deed, 

And  with  his  stick  above  the  crosslet, 

That  was  ordained  with  that  false  get, 

He  stirreth  the  coals,  til  relenten  gan 

The  wax  again  the  fire  as  every  man 

But  he  a  fool  be,  wot  well  it  wote  need, 

And  all  that  in  the  stick  was  out  yede  ; 

And  in  the  crosslet  hastily  it  fell." 

Norton  was  an  active  "adept"  in  the  fifteenth  century.  His 
"Ordinal,"  published  in  1477,  opens  thus  : 

"  Maistryeful,  merveilous,  and  archaimaistrye 

Is  the  tincture  of  holy  alkimy. 

A  wonderful  science,  secrete  philosophic  ; 

A  singular  gift  and  grace  of  the  Almightie, 

Which  never  was  found  by  the  labour  of  mann  ; 

But  by  teaching  or  revelacion  begann. 

It  was  never  for  money  sold  or  bought, 

By  any  mann  which  for  it  has  sought, 

But  given  to  an  able  mann  by  grace, 

Wrought  with  great  cost,  by  long  laisir  and  space, 

It  helpeth  a  man  when  he  hath  neede  ; 

It  voideth  vain  glory,  hope  and  also  dreade  ; 

It  voideth  ambitiousness,  extortion  and  excesse  ; 

It  fenceth  adversity  that  she  doe  not  oppresse." 

Italy  swarmed  with  alchemists  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
Senate  of  Venice,  in  1468,  passed  stringent  laws  prohibiting 
them  from  further  pursuing  their  vocation.  The  Nuremburg 
Senate,  in  1493,  enacted  laws  for  suppressing  alchemy.  "For 
many  people  have,  by  its  practice,  not  only  been  ruined  in  purse, 
but  have  also  experienced  irreparable  injury  to  their  moral 
nature,  and  have  consequently  fallen  into  disgrace." 

In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI  of  England,  an  act  was  passed 
which  ordains  "  That  no  one  shall  henceforth  multiply  gold  or 
silver,  nor  use  the  craft  of  multiplication,  because  many  persons 
by  color  of  this  multiplication  make  false  money,  to  the  great 
deceit  of  the  King,  and  the  injury  of  the  people." 


Alchemy:  Its  Development  and  Decline.  165 

One  of  the  greatest  alchemists  of  the  fifteenth  century  was 
Basil  Valentine,  to  whom  is  due  the  discovery  of  antimony.  The 
following  instructions  to  his  disciples  show  that  he  was  a  true 
scientist : 

First,  therefore,  the  name  of  God  ought  to  be  called  on  religiously  with  a 
pure  heart  and  sound  conscience,  without  ambition,  hypocrisy,  and  other  abuses, 
such  as  are  pride,  arrogance,  disdain,  worldly  boasting,  and  oppression  of  our 
neighbors,  and  other  enormities  of  that  kind,  all  of  which  are  to  be  totally  eradi- 
cated out  of  the  heart Whosoever,  therefore,  hath  resolved  within  him- 
self to  seek  the  top  of  terrestrials,  that  is,  the  knowledge  of  the  good  lodging 
in  every  creature  lying  dormant,  or  covered  in  stones,  herbs,  roots,  seeds,  living 
creatures,  plants,  minerals,  metals,  and  the  like,  let  him  cast  behind  him  all 
worldly  cares,  and  other  appurtenances,  and  expect  release  with  his  whole  heart 
by  humble  prayer,  and  his  hope  shall  not  fail.  Men  who  began  and  pursued 
their  life-long  toil  in  this  spirit  are  not  to  be  spoken  of  without  great  respect. 

Emperor  Rudolph  II,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  an  ardent 
student  of  alchemy.  He  invited  alchemists  from  far  and  near 
to  his  court.  After  his  death,  in  1612,  8,400  pounds  of  gold,  and 
6,000  pounds  of  silver,  cast  in  earthen-pots,  were  found  among 
his  effects,  which  led  to  the  belief  that  Rudolph  II  had  been  an 
adept. 

Among  the  leaders  of  the  "  Reformation,"  alchemy  acquired 
friends.  Luther  says  :  "  The  art  of  Alchemy  is,  in  truth  and  in 
fact,  the  philosophy  of  the  wise.  I  think  highly  of  it,  not  only 
for  its  inherent  virtues  and  usefulness  in  the  distilling  and  sub- 
liming of  metals,  herbs  and  waters,  but  also  for  its  grand  and 
beautiful  similitude  to  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  on  the  day  of 
judgment."  The  swindling  type  of  alchemist  became  very  fre- 
quent in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  fell  under  the  ridicule  of  Ben 
Jonson.  The  real  scientist  continued  his  studies,  discoveries  of 
value  followed,  and  a  useful  foundation  was  laid  for  the  advances 
made  in  the  next  century.  The  publication  of  the  works  of 
Francis  Bacon  stimulated  the  spirit  of  philosophical  research. 
The  growing  science  of  astronomy  dealt  the  astrological  part  of 
alchemy  a  severe  blow,  and  injured  it  in  the  estimation  of  the 
learned,  who  had  begun  to  separate  the  chaff  from  the  wheat. 

Evidences  of  a  growing  science  of  chemistry  are  discernible 
in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1654  an  alchemist's  society  was 
formed  at  Nuremburg,  with  the  preacher  Daniel  Wulfel  at  its 
head,  which  remained  in  existence  until  1694.  In  1666  the  great 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


philosopher,  G.  W.  Leibnitz,  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
laws  at  Altdorf,  and  visited  savants  of  Nuremburg,  where  he 
heard  of  this  society  of  learned  men,  who  were  secretly  endeav- 
oring, by  chemical  experiments,  to  discover  the  "philosopher's 
stone." 

Leibnitz  was  of  an  inquisitive  turn  of  mind,  and  determined 
to  gain  an  insight  into  chemistry.  To  secure  admission  into 
this  august  circle  he  devised  a  clever  scheme.  He  read  a  num- 
ber of  profound  chemical  works,  and  collated  all  obscure  words 
and  sentences.  From  these  he  framed  an  incomprehensible 
letter,  which  he  sent  to  the  priest,  with  a  petition  for  admission 
to  the  secret  society.  The  priest,  on  reading  the  letter,  con- 
cluded that  Leibnitz  must  be  an  "  adept,"  and  not  only  intro- 
duced him  into  the  laboratory,  but  begged  him  to  accept  a 
salaried  position  as  secretary,  which  he  did.  Leibnitz  left 
Nuremberg  in  1667,  and  consequently  did  not  hold  this  office  for 
a  great  length  of  time.  Traces  of  his  alchemical  studies  are 
evident  in  his  correspondence  concerning  Newton. 

The  influence  of  Francis  Bacon  showed  itself  in  the  scientific 
study  of  alchemy  in  England  during  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  "Royal  Society  "  was  formed  under  the  protectorate  of 
Cromwell,  and  its  effects  were  visible  in  the  subsequent  reign. 
King  Charles  II,  Prince  Rupert  (of  whose  chemical  studies 
"Prince  Rupert's  drop"  preserves  the  memory),  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, merchants,  and  even  poets,  ardently  devoted  themselves 
to  the  labors  of  the  laboratory.  Dryden,  in  his  "Annus  Mirabilis," 
glowingly  describes  the  advances  made  and  prophesies  others. 
The  Marquis  of  Worcester  devises-  a  rude  steam  engine  as  a 
result  of  his  studies,  and  pronounces  it  a  "forcible  instrument  of 
propulsion."  Traces  of  the  infant  science  of  agricultural  chem- 
istry are  found  at  this  time  as  a  result  of  the  stimulus  then  given 
to  chemistry.  Nor  was  the  hypothesis  of  the  transmutation  of 
metals  entirely  lost  sight  of  in  these  studies.  Newton  spent  many 
hours  in  his  laboratory  working  at  this  problem.  In  his  letters 
to  Boyle  there  are  constant  references  to  this  pursuit,  and  to  a 
mysterious  red  earth  needed  to  complete  the  transmutation. 
Elias  Ashmole,  the  founder  of  the  Ashmolean  Museum,  took 
occasion  to  collate  the  works  of  the  old  alchemists  in  his  rare 
book,  published  in  1652,  the  "Theatrum  Chemicum  Britanni- 


Alchemy  :  Its  Development  and  Decline.  167 

cum."     These  labors  point  to  a  growing  interest  in  alchemic 
literature.     In  his  preface  Ashmole  says  of  himself: 

I  must  profess  I  know  enough  to  hold  my  tongue,  but  not  enough  to 
speak, — and  the  no  less  real  than  miraculous  fruits  I  have  found  in  my  diligent 
inquiry  into  this  arcana,  lead  me  on  to  such  degrees  of  admiration  they  com- 
mand silence,  and  force  me  to  loose  my  tongue.  Howbeit  there  are  few  stocks 
that  are  fitted  to  inoculate  the  grafts  of  science  upon ;  they  are  mysteries 
uncommunicable  to  all  but  adepts,  and  those  that  have  been  devoted  from  their 
cradle  to  serve  and  wait  at  this  altar— and  they,  perhaps,  were,  with  St.  Paul, 
caught  up  into  Paradise,  and  as  he  heard  unspeakable  words — so  they  wrought 
impossible  works. 

Frequent  attempts  were  made  to  explain  and  amplify  the  prin- 
ciples laid  down  in  alchemical  works,  by  the  introduction  of 
picturesque,  obscure  and  mystical  circumlocutions.  Poetry, 
music  and  art  were  frequently  pressed  into  service.  Alchemy  is 
expounded  by  aid  of  these  agents  in  the  "  Atalanta  fugiens,  hoc  est 
emblemata  nova  de  secretis  naturae  chymica.  Authore  Michaele 
Majero.  Oppenheimii,  1618,"  from  which  Fig.  77,  on  the  title- 
page  of  this  chapter  is  taken.  This  illustration  is  intended  to 
demonstrate  the  dangers  of  the  search  for  the  "  philosopher's 
stone,"  which  is  compared  to  the  wooing  of  the  swift-footed,  beau- 
tiful Boeotian,  Atalanta.  According  to  the  myth,  she  stipulated  that 
every  suitor  must  run  a  race  with  her,  in  which  he  was  given  a 
start.  In  case  she  did  not  overtake  him,  she  was  to  be  his  wife  ; 
otherwise  he  was  to  die.  Many  suitors  had  perished  in  this 
manner,  when  Hippomenes,  by  the  aid  of  Aphrodite,  outwitted 
Atalanta.  The  goddess  gave  him  golden  apples,  which  he  drop- 
ped in  the  path  of  his  pursuer.  Atalanta  lost  so  much  time  pick- 
ing these  up,  that  Hippomenes  reached  the  goal  first.  He  forgot 
to  thank  the  kind  goddess,  who,  in  revenge,  excited  him  to  such 
vehement  manifestations  of  love,  that  he  embraced  his  bride  in 
the  temple  of  Zeus.  To  punish  this  desecration,  the  lovers  were 
turned  into  lions.  The  garden  of  the  Hesperides  is  included  in 
this  pictorial  rendering  of  the  Atalanta  legend.  In  this  garden 
the  three  daughters  of  night  and  the  hundred-headed  cerberus 
watched  the  golden  apples,  which  Hera  had  received  as  a  pres- 
ent from  Goea  at  the  time  of  her  marriage  with  Zeus.  Hercules 
secured  these  apples  and  brought  them  to  Eurystheus,  who  re- 
turned them  to  him.  Hercules  then  presented  them  to  Athena, 
who  returned  them  to  the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides.  Every 


1 68 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


precept  in  this  book  appears  as  an  epigram,  with  notes  for  a 
choral  melody.  A  German  translation  of  the  verse  is  given,  and 
with  it  a  copper-print,  designed  as  an  allegorical  explanation  of 
the  precepts  it  was  designed  to  inculcate.  Each  chapter  winds 
up  with  a  verbose  supplementary  explanation  in  Latin.  Figures 
78  and  79,  from  this  work,  refer  to  the  alchemistic  precepts 


Fig.  78- 

borrowed  from  the  "Tabula  Smaragdina."  Figure  78  illus- 
trates the  theme,  "  The  wind  carried  him  in  its  bowels ; "  and 
Figure  79  the  theme,  «  He  was  nourished  by  the  earth."  The 
meaning  of  this  picture  is  best  shown  by  the  following  prose 
translation  of  the  epigram  to  which  it  refers  : 

«•  Romulus  was  nourished  by  a  wolf,  and  Jupiter,  as  the  legend  says,  by  a 
'.  fed  by  animals  were  certainly  great  men  ;  but  how  much  greater 
must  he  be  who  was  nourished  by  the  earth." 


Alchemy  :  Its  Development  and  Decline. 


169 


The  notes  on  following  page  (Fig.  80)  comprise  the  melody  of 
the  Latin  epigram.  This  poetico-musico  pictorial  explanation 
rather  conduces  to  obscurity  than  to  facilitate  a  solution  of  the 
problem. 

The  influence  which  astrology  exerted  on  the  figurative 
writings  of  the  alchemists  is  unmistakeable.  Thus  there  was 


Fig.  79- 

supposed  to  be  a  close  conformity  between  the  seven  known 
metals  and  the  seven  so-called  planets.  This  belief  was  carried 
into  modern  chemistry.  Each  metal  was  named  after  the  planet 
upon  which  it  was  nominally  dependent.  Gold  was  called  the 
sun  ;  silver,  the  moon ;  iron,  mars ;  mercury,  mercury ;  tin, 
jupiter ;  copper,  venus ;  and  lead,  saturn.  According  to  the 
alchemists  no  planet  could  suffer  a  modification  without  awaken- 
ing the  sympathy  of  the  corresponding  metal.  This  sympathy 
was,  according  to  astrologico-alchemistic  views,  transmitted  by 


ijo 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


infinitely  minute  bodies,  which  proceeded  from  the  planets  and 
metals.  These  molecules  were  so  constructed  that  they  could 
readily  enter  the  pores  of  the  corresponding  planet  or  metal,  but 
never  into  those  of  a  foreign  body.  If  by  chance  they  came  in 
contact  with  a  foreign  body  they  would  not  be  retained  or  in 
any  event  could  not  serve  as  nourishment.  Each  of  the  seven 

f>im. 


Romu         lus  hir      ta  lu 


pat  preflitfc  fed  uberacapras 


£fegS^^^4^N^g^ 


Jupiter     &    di         ftis    fet         tut       adefle  £des. 


£ 


Romu  lus  hir       ta  lu 


pae'prcfliue  fed  ubera  caprae 


m 


Jupiter  &      di          ibs,  icr 


adcffc  fides. 


ZZ.6     ^T~    ^     ~"^^^^~T~X^        "~~  __  '  _  ' 


Romulus  hirta  lupae  prefllile  fed  ubcra  caprar 


t±+3^+=±=X-4-*.J>+lf=^ zz 

Jupiter  &  di&s  /ertur  adefTe  fides. 
Fig.  80. 

planets  had  its  day  of  the  week  on  which  it  manifested  its  influ- 
ence over  its  particular  metal.  To  be  successful  all  work  with 
gold  must  be  begun  on  Sunday ;  with  silver,  on  Monday ;  with 
iron,  on  Tuesday,  etc.  All  metals  were  supposed  to  contain 
mercury  and  sulphur.  These  designations,  however,  were  not 
those  of  the  substances  now  known  by  these  names,  but  others 
df  an  entirely  different  character,  of  the  nature  of  which  the 
alchemists  themselves  had  no  clear  conception.  Therefore,  they 
spoke  of  them  allegorically,  or  in  respect  to  their  activity. 


Alchemy:  Its  Development  and  Decline.  171 

Sulphur  (Sulphur  philosophorum)  was  of  an  almost  spiritual 
nature ;  it  was  the  light,  the  fire  and  the  combustible  matter 
thought  to.  be  inherent  in  all  bodies, — the  phlogiston  of  early 
chemistry.  It  was  the  male  element,  and  contained  the  "  Punc- 
tum  seminale  activum  "  needed  in  the  evolution  of  new  bodies 
and  substances.  Alchemistic  writers  refer  to  it  by  many  different 
names, — "  House  of  the  Spirit,"  "  Father,"  "  Elementary  Fire," 
"Magical  Steel,"  "  Elementary  Oil,"  "  Elementary  Sulphurous- 


Fig.  81. 

ness,"  "  Cadmi-blood,"  "Adamic-earth,"  "  Heart  of  Saturn," 
etc.  The  female  element  required  to  evolve  a  new  body  was 
"Mercurius";  upon  it  the  male,  "Sulphur,"  by  intimate  con- 
tact, impressed  the  germ  of  the  object  to  be  evolved. 

"  Mercury,"  the  connecting  link  between  spirit  and  body, 
also  known  as  Encheiresis  naturae,  was  present  in  the  three 
realms  of  nature.  In  the  mineral  kingdom  it  was  "mineral 
moisture."  In  the  animal  kingdom,  "elementary  moisture," 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


upon  which  depended  blood  and  life  ;  in  the  plant  kingdom,  the 
force  or  "  spiritus  mundi,"  which  promoted  the  growth  of  the 
plants.  By  the  old  fire  philosophers  it  was  called  "  a  water  which 
does  not  moisten  the  hands,"  a  "  dry  moisture  "  or  the  "  corporeal 
spirit." 

This  peculiar  "sulphur"  and  the  "mercury,"  either  sepa- 
rately or  combined  in  an  hermaphrodite  being,  were  called  the 
"lapis  philosophorum,"  which  was  also  known  as  the  "universal 
menstruum,"  the  "great  magister,"  the  "red  tincture,"  the  "secret 
elixir,"  the  "quinta  essentia,"  etc.  The  philosopher's  stone  is 
pictured  by  the  alchemists  as  an  hermaphrodite  being;  "sulphur" 
as  the  king  or  sun,  and  "  mercury"  as  the  queen  or  moon.  Fig. 
81  (a  wood  cut  from  the  "Rosarium  Philosophorum,"  printed  by 
Cyriacus  Jacobus,  at  Frankfurt,  in  1550),  shows  the  father  and 
the  mother  of  the  hermaphrodite  stone,  in  the  act  of  uniting. 
The  stone  itself  is  allegorically  represented  in  figure  82.  To 
indicate  the  enigmatical  character  of  this  being,  it  is  surrounded 
by  the  animals  that  took  part,  according  to  the  allegory,  in  the 
formation  of  the  stone.  In  honor  of  the  latter,  the  following 
verse  is  appended  to  this  picture,  called  the  "  ^Enigma  Regis." 

"  Here  a  king  is  born  indeed, 
None  can  boast  of  nobler  breed  ; 
Formed  he  was  by  art  or  nature, 
His  birth  he  owes  to  no  known  creature. 
Of  philosophers  he  is  the  son, 
Of  their  power  an  incarnate  one  ; 
Health  and  life  he  freely  gave, 
And  every  wish  that  man  may  crave  ; 
Silver,  gold  and  gems  so  rare, 
Youth  and  strength  and  all  that's  fair; 
From  him  flee  anger,  grief  and  pains, 
Whoe'er  from  God  this  gift  obtains. 

Thus,  the  philosopher's  stone,  not  only  changed  metals  into 
gold,  but,  according  to  some,  could  change  any  substance  into 
gold,  cure  all  diseases,  and  control,  renew  and  rejuvenate  animal 
life. 

Every  alchemist  goes  into  raptures  over  the  "  quinta  essen- 
tia," the  soul  of  the  four  elements.  The  alchemists,  Artephius 
and  Cagliostro,  claimed  to  have  lived  over  one  thousand  years 
by  the  aid  of  this  elixir.  Ripley  lauds  its  medicinal  virtues  in  a 


Alchemy  :  Its  Development  and  Decline. 


rapturous  style,  calling  it  the  greatest  medicine  in  the  world.  He 
declares  "  It  is  the  true  tree  of  life,  which  gratifies  all  desires  of 
the  person  possessing  it.  It  rejuvenates,  retards  old  age,  strength- 
ens and  restores  health.  It  will  not  only  produce  a  new  growth 
of  hair,  but,  properly  applied,  will  prevent  hair  from  turning 


Fig.  82. 

REPRESENTATION   OF  THE   FORMATION   OF   THE    HERMAPHRODITE   STONE. 

gray."  The"quinta  essentia,"  which  was  sold  at  a  high  price 
under  the  name  of  "aurum  potabile,"  was,  for  the  most  part, 
golden-yellow  vegetable  tinctures  of  about  the  same  value  as  the 
"  infallible  hair  restorers  "  of  the  barber. 

Diverse  methods  were  adopted  to  secure  the   great   desid- 
eratum.     Some  alchemists    sought   the   philosopher's    stone   in 


I74  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

honey,  manna,  sugar  or  wine ;  others  in  vegetables,  like  rose- 
mary and  marquory,  or  in  gums,  blood,  urine  or  excrements. 
Some  sought  it  in  may-dew  and  rainwater.  Astrologists  went  to 
the  extent  of  imprisoning  the  sun's  rays,  and  attempting  to  cal- 
cine and  powder  them.  The  rays  were  supposed  to  consist  of 
pure  golden  sparks,  which  contained  the  seed  of  gold.  The  dead 
were  not  allowed  to  rest  in  the  grave.  From  their  decaying 
bodies  saltpetre  was  extracted,  which  was  regarded  as  the  soul 
of  the  philosopher's  stone, — the  "  true  microcosm." 

Other  fire  philosophers  considered  various  kinds  of  earth  ;  for 
example,  marl,  as  the  "  chaos  "  from  which  God  made  the  world, 
and  sought  for  the  seed  of  all  things,  the  "  panspermion,"  in  the 
earth  itself.  This  seed  was  thought  to  be  a  formless,  peculiar 
being,  which  possessed  the  power  to  create  all  things,  gold  being 
the  most  distinguished. 

Opposed  to  these  theories  was  a  party  headed  by  Raymond 
Lully  and  Basil  Valentine,  who  boldly  asserted  that  the  light  ot 
Nature  was  but  the  light  of  an  ignis  fatuus  or  glow-worm.  This 
party  had  for  the  cardinal  principle  in  their  philosophy,  "  Omne 
simile  suum  simile,"  and  consequently  sought  the  seed  of  gold  in 
gold  itself.  They  considered  other  metals  as  merely  furnishing 
a  fruitful  soil  in  which  the  gold  seed  was  sown,  and  which  would, 
by  a  process  of  interstitial  displacement,  develop  and  grow  like 
a  plant.  For  purposes  of  fructification,  it  was  thought  essential 
to  steep  golden  seed  in  its  own  moisture.  This  gold-like 
moisture,  called  "  metallic  water,"  was  no  doubt  mercury.  It 
was  not,  however,  the  common  marketable  article,  "but  only 
such  as  had  been  skillfully  extracted  from  the  objects  in  which 
it  is  found  in  nature.  The  '  Mercurius  philosophorum '  is  not 
found  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  but,  as  Philaletha  says,  '  is  the 
son  that  is  prepared  by  us.'"  The  purification  of  mercury, 
essential  to  its  union  with  gold  to  form  the  philosopher's  stone, 
is  given  much  attention  in  alchemistic  literature.  Numerous  for- 
mulas for  mercurial  compounds  are  given,  from  which  purified 
mercury  can  be  obtained.  The  "  Hermetic  Philosophy  "  of  John 
d'Espagnet,  gives  a  formula  for  preparing  mild  mercury  chloride, 
which  does  not  materially  differ  from  the  modern  process.  The 
descriptive  part,  however,  is  so  characteristic  of  the  times,  that 
it  merits  reproduction  here  : 


Alchemy  :  Its  Development  and  Decline. 


J75 


"  The  eagle  and  the  lion,  after  being  thoroughly  cleansed,  are  put  together 
in  a  transparent  reservoir.  This  is  tightly  closed,  so  that  their  breath  cannot 
escape,  or  air  enter  from  without.  The  eagle  will  dismember  and  eat  the  lion  : 
and  when  his  stomach  is  swollen,  and  he  has  become  dropsical,  he  will,  by  a 
wonderful  transformation,  be  changed  into  a  coal-black  raven,  which  will  grad- 
ually spread  its  feathers  and  begin  to  fly,  and  shake  water  from  the  clouds  until 
he  has  become  wet  several  times,  lost  his  feathers,  and  finally  fallen  to  the 
bottom,  when  he  will  be  changed  into  a  snow-white  swan." 

The  "eagle"  is  the  volatile  mercury,  which,  combined  with 
the  "lion,"  or  mercuric  chloride,  produces  the  black  compound,. 
"  the  raven,"  from  which  the  mild  mercury  chloride,  the  white 
swan,  is  made  by  sublimation  from  a  glass  retort,  to  which  an 
air-tight  receptacle  has  been  adjusted,  after  the  surplus  of  mer- 
cury, here  called  "  water,"  has  become  separated.  The  purifi- 
cation and  sublimation  of  mercury  was  repeated  seven  times. 
The  seed  gold  had  to  be  cleansed  an  equal  number  of  times 
before  it,  was  amalgamated.  The  gold  was  to  battle  with  the 
seven  eagles  of  the  philosophical  "arsenic,"  and  then  unite 
itself  with  the  two  doves  of  Diana.  The  eagles  indicate  the 
mercurial  volatility  of  the  metal  used,  called  "  philosophical 
arsenic  "  (properly  speaking,  antimony),  with  which  the  gold 
was  to  be  melted  seven  times.  This  is  an  old  method  for  purify- 
ing gold.  By  the  heating  process  the  foreign  metals  and  admix- 
tures which  frequently  accompany  the  gold  are  slaked  with  the 
antimony  and  a  little  saltpetre,  whilst  the  pure  gold,  the  king  of 
metals,  subsides  to  the  bottom  of  the  crucible. 

"  But  before  the  gold  is  mixed  with  its  water  it  must  be 
reduced  to  the  finest  powder  possible  or  it  will  withstand  solu- 
tion." To  reduce  gold  to  this  fine  powder  it  was,  according  to- 
an  old  formula,  melted  with  two  parts  of  silver,  called  by  the 
alchemists,  the  two  doves  from  Diana's  forest,  that  is,  the  metallic 
kingdom,  and  this  alloy  was  treated  with  nitric  acid.  The 
silver  was  dissolved  by  the  acid,  and  the  gold  remained 
undissolved  in  the  acid  as  a  very  fine  powder,  although  still 
somewhat  contaminated  by  small  particles  of  silver.  This  gold 
powder,  which  the  alchemists  believed  to  be  absolutely  pure, 
readily  united  with  mercury  under  the  influence  of  a  gentle  heat, 
and  it  was  this  mixture  which  represented  the  "  true  hermaphro- 
dite," whose  male  generic  element  descended  from  the  most 
perfect  of  metals,  and  whose  female  force  is  a  delicate  mineral 


I76  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

whiteness.  It  was  supposed  to  contain  the  egg  from  which  the 
"philosopher's  stone  "  was  developed. 

To  this  end  a  glass  retort  was  filled  with  the  amalgam,  placed 
in  a  nest-like  contrivance  on  a  stove,  and  subjected  to  a  gentle, 
even  heat  for  nearly  a  year,  "  because  it  also  takes  a  kernel  of 
wheat  that  length  of  time  to  develop  and  produce  new  kernels." 
The  "  stone  "  was  not  to  be  disturbed  during  this  process  of  devel- 
opment, as  its  incipient  vitality  might  thus  be  easily  destroyed. 
During  the  first  three  months,  its  embryonic  period,  it  was  kept  at 
an  animal  temperature.  At  the  end  of  this  time  it  had  changed  into 
white  "  magisterium,"  and  could  change  baser  metals  into  silver. 
The  temperature  was  then  gradually  raised  in  five  stages  of  vari- 
able duration,  during  which  time  the  stone  changed  color  like  a 
chameleon.  From  the  original  black  raven,  which  had  changed 
into  a  white  dove,  a  Tyrian  purple  color  was  to  result,  which  was 
the  true  "philosopher's  stone."  "  Projection  "  (sprinkling  it  on 
molten  metal),  would  change  a  metal  into  gold.  Ripley  says 
that  one  grain  could  change  one  hundred  ounces  of  mercury  into 
the  so-called  red  tincture,  and  calculates  that  with  this  exactly 
119,010^  pounds  of  mercury  could  be  changed  into  gold. 

Raymond  Lully,  during  his  sojourn  in  London,  is  said  to  have 
transformed  50,000  pounds  of  mercury  into  gold  for  King 
Edward  III,  from  which  the  first  rose-nobles  were  coined.  The 
credibility  of  this  story,  gravely  related  by  the  Abbe  Cremer, 
receives  a  severe  shock,  when,  in  spite  of  this  abundant  supply 
of  gold,  King  Edward  III  is  forced  to  increase  the  taxes  to  carry 
on  his  war  against  France,  and  to  coin  money  from  his  own  and 
the  queen's  crown,  and  from  the  gold  vessels  of  churches  and 
cloisters. 

Koehler,  in  1744,  related  in  his  numismatical  work,  that  the 
Emperor  Frederic  III,  although  not  a  disciple  of  alchemy, 
changed,  on  January  15,  1648,  at  Prague,  three  pounds  of  mer- 
cury into  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  gold  by  means  of  one  grain 
of  a  red  powder,  given  him  by  a  man  named  Richthausen.  He 
created  this  man  a  Baron  of  Chaos,  and  from  the  gold  a  medal 
was  made  which  bore  an  inscription  referring  to  the  artificial 
origin  of  the  gold.  This  medal  was  long  preserved  in  the  Vienna 
Treasury. 

Urban   Hjoerne,  a  renowned  chemist  of  his  day,  reports  a 


Alchemy :  Its  Development  and  Decline.  177 

similar  case  of  transformation  from  Sweden.  The  Saxon  lieu- 
tenant, Paykull,  was  taken  prisoner  by  Charles  XII,  at  Warsau, 
in  1705,  and  condemned  to  death.  He  promised  to  make  one 
million  dollars  worth  of  gold  each  year,  if  his  life  were  spared. 
Paykull  changed  lead  into  gold  by  means  of  a  tincture,  rendered 
fire-proof  by  the  addition  of  antimony,  sulphur  and  saltpetre.  In 
the  presence  of  Hamilton,  the  master  of  ordnance,  Paykull,  with 
an  ounce  of  this  mixture,  changed  six  ounces  of  lead  into  gold. 
To  make  a  counter-test,  Hamilton  mixed  the  powders  at  home. 
Paykull  next  day  added  some  of  the  tincture,  and  the  whole  was 
melted  together  with  a  quantity  of  lead.  Gold  to  the  value  of 
one  hundred  and  forty-seven  ducats  was  secured.  Out  of  this 
gold  medals  of  two-ducat  weight  were  coined,  and  inscribed  as 
follows :  "  Hoc  aurum  arte  chemica  conflavit  Holmiae,  1706. 
O.  A.  v.  Paykull."  Paykull,  despite  his  skill,  was  executed. 

The  gold-makers,  though  for  the  most  part,  generous  and  in- 
dustrious, devoting  themselves  to  the  enrichment  of  others,  rather 
than  themselves,  frequently  met  a  cruel  fate.  George  Honauer 
promised  to  transform  thirty-six  hundred  weight  of  iron  inta 
gold  for  the  Prince  of  Wirtemburg.  The  prince  detected  a  boy, 
who  had  been  concealed  in  the  laboratory,  in  the  act  of  putting 
gold  into  the  crucible.  He  thereupon  ordered  a  gallows  to  be 
constructed  of  iron  from  which  the  false  gold-maker  was  hung 
in  1597.  In  1606  a  gold-maker,  named  Andreas  von  Muehlen- 
dorf,  was  hung  at  Stuttgart  on  this  same  gallows,  which  gained 
further  repute  in  1738,  by  its  services  in  the  execution  of  minister 
Joseph  Suess,  who  knew,  without  the  aid  of  the  "  hermetic  art," 
better  than  "  adepts,"  how  to  make  gold. 

Chr.  Wm.  Krohnemann,  in  1677,  entered  the  service  of  the 
Marquis  of  Brandenburg,  with  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  a  short 
time  he  won  a  high  reputation  as  a  gold-maker,  and  was  rapidly- 
promoted  to  the  directorship  of  the  mint  and  mines.  From  gold 
ostensibly  made  by  Krohnemann,  seven  different  medals  were 
coined,  which  are  pictured  and  described  in  the  "Book  of  Odd 
Historical  Coins,"  published  in  1771.  Figure  83,  taken  from  this 
book,  represents  the  first,  the  largest  and  rarest  specimen  in 
the  Krohnemann  numismatic  cabinet.  On  the  obverse  is  a 
fettered  Mercury,  who  holds  in  his  hand  a  staff,  terminating  in  a 
sun,  emblematic  of  gold.  The  whole  figure  serves  as  an  alchem- 


i78 


History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 


istic  symbol  It  is  surrounded  by  a  Latin  dedicatory  inscription  to 
"Mar-rave  Christian  Ernst,  1677."  The  reverse  bears  a  Latin 
inscription  to  the  following  effect :  "  Let  it  be  known  to  all,  that 


Fig.  83. 
ALCHEMISTIC   GOLD  COINS. 


what  by  many  is  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  nature  only,  can 
also  be  accomplished  by  art.  This  product  is  witness  thereof,  to 
the  honor  of  God,  for  the  well-being  of  thy  neighbor  and  the 


Alchemy  :  Its  Development  and  Decline.  179 

admiration  of  the  wide  world."  The  last  coin  made  by  Krohne- 
mann  was  a  small  medal  dedicated  to  Margravess  Sophia  Louise, 
of  Brandenburg,  in  1681.  After  this  medal  had  been  coined, 
Krohnemann  was  suspected  of  deception,  and  imprisoned  in 
1681,  in  the  Plassenburg  citadel.  He  continued  his  experiments 
until  1686,  when  he  escaped.  He  was  recaptured,  tried  and 
found  guilty  of  having  abstracted  gold  and  silver  ware  from  the 
Margrave's  treasury,  for  use  in  his  deception.  As  it  was  also 
proven  that  he  unlawfully  cohabited  with  his  jaileress,  he  was 
condemned  to  be  hanged  for  fraud,  theft  and  adultery.  In  the 
course  of  the  trial  it  was  demonstrated  that  Krohnemann  had 
worked  according  to  a  formula  in  general  use  among  the  alchem- 
ists of  his  day.  Berzelius,  in  his  text-book,  thus  describes  it : 

"  Mercury,  verdigris,  vitriol  and  salt  are  digested  with  strong  vinegar  in  an 
iron-pot,  and  stirred  with  an  iron  rod  until  the  mass  takes  on  the  consistency  of 
butter.  The  remaining  liquid,  which  is  an  amalgam  of  copper,  is  pressed 
through  leather,  and  then  put  into  a  crucible  with  even  parts  of  curcuma  and 
tutia,  whereupon  the  crucible  is  heated  by  a  blast.  The  curcuma  reduces  the 
tutia,  which  is  an  impure  oxide  of  zinc,  and  the  copper  in  the  amalgam  unites 
with  the  zinc  to  form  brass.  Krohnemann  surreptitiously  added  gold ;  hence 
his  product  was  an  alloy  of  copper,  gold  and  zinc." 

A  quack  named  Daniel  supplied  Italian  apothecaries  with  a 
wonderful  gold-powder  called  "  Usufur."  Pretending  that  the 
art  of  compounding  this  usufur  with  other  drugs  was  a  mystery 
known  only  to  himself,  he  directed  his  patients  not  to  permit  the 
apothecaries  to  mix  the  ingredients  of  his  prescriptions,  but  to 
buy  them  (including  the  usufur),  and  bring  them  to  him  for  com- 
pounding. His  "art"  consisted  in  compounding  the  drugs,  but 
omitting  the  golden  "  usufur,"  in  which  manner  he  succeeded  in 
having  restored  to  him  the  gold-powder,  which  he  had  pre- 
viously sold  at  a  high  price.  The  powder  soon  became  famous 
under  the  shrewd  practices  of  the  quack,  who  finally  offered  to 
teach  Duke  Cosmos  II,  of  Florence,  the  art  of  making  gold.  He 
asked  the  duke  himself  to  buy  the  "  usufur  "  at  a  drug-store,  and 
with  this  the  experiment  was  of  course  a  success.  After  the 
duke  had  repeatedly  succeeded  in  making  gold  according  to 
directions,  he  paid  Daniel  20,000  ducats,  who  thereupon  fled 
beyond  the  border  to  France,  whence  he  wrote  the  duke  how  he 
had  been  victimized. 

Alchemy  was  practiced  at  the  Saxon  court  during  the  reign 


Z8o  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

of  Prince  August  (1553  to  1586),  who  had  the  reputation  of  an 
"  adept."  One  of  his  collaborators,  David  Benter,  after  many 
trials,  failed  to  produce  gold,  whereupon  he  was  imprisoned  on 
the  strength  of  an  opinion  rendered  by  the  highest  court  of 
justice  at  Leipzig.  Having  written  on  the  walls  of  his  cell, 
"Caged  cats  catch  no  mice  ;  "  and  having  renewed  his  promises, 
he  was  released  to  renew  his  experiments.  He  lost  faith  in  his 
ability  to  prove  his  pretensions,  and  poisoned  himself,  which 
probably  saved  him  the  fate  of  John  Hector  von  Kletten- 
berg,  a  Saxon  alchemist,  decapitated  in  1620.  Count  Cajetan, 
in  1705,  in  the  presence  of  Frederic  I  of  Prussia,  changed,  by 
means  of  his  red  tincture,  one  pound  of  mercury  into  gold.  He 
did  not  keep  his  promise  of  making  six  million  dollars  of  gold  in 
six  weeks,  and  in  1709  was  hanged,  draped  in  gold  leaf,  which 
became  the  customary  method  of  dealing  with  alchemists. 

The  numerous  deceptions  practiced  in  connection  with  the 
philosopher's  stone,  explain  the  solemn  oaths  of  witnesses  of 
known  integrity,  whose  testimony  would  otherwise  be  unimpeach- 
able, but  who  were  in  reality  themselves  duped  and  deceived. 
Contemporaneous  writers  did  not  fail  to  remonstrate  against 
alchemistic  pretensions,  and  vigorously  expose  their  fallacy.  The 
enlightened  Parisian  apothecary,  Nicol.  Lemery,  in  his  "  Cours 
de  Chimie,"  calls  alchemy  satirically,  "  Ars  sine  arte,  cujus  prin- 
cipium  mentiri,  medium  laborare  et  finis  mendicare." — "An  art- 
less art,  whose  beginning  is  a  lie,  whose  middle  is  work,  and 
whose  end  is  poverty." 

Although  the  old  fire-philosophers  failed  to  realize  their  ulti- 
mate hope,  their  labors  were  not  entirely  in  vain.  The  belief  in 
the  feasibility  of  metal  transmutation  stimulated  wide  research 
in  the  domain  of  nature.  The  search  for  the  philosopher's 
stone  revealed  truths  which  form  the  basis  of  modern  chem- 
istry, which  has  been  infinitely  more  successful  than  its  parent, 
alchemy,  in  filling  with  gold  the  coffers  of  its  disciples.  For 
paving  the  way  to  this  result,  a  debt  of  gratitude  is  due  to 
alchemy.  In  spite  of  the  numerous  deceptions  practiced  by  the 
impostors  among  its  disciples,  sympathy  must  be  felt  with  the 
sincere  alchemists  in  contemplating  their  indomitable  courage 
and  patience  in  the  presence  of  centuries  of  repeated  failures 
and  disappointments.  Lord  Bacon  says  : 


Alchemy  :  Its  Development  and  Decline.  181 

"  The  alchemist  goes  on  with  an  eternal  hope,  and  where  his 
matters  succeed  not,  lays  the  blame  upon  his  own  errors,  and 
accuses  himself  as  having  not  sufficiently  understood  either  the 
terms  of  his  art,  or  his  author  ;  whence  he  either  hearkens  out 
for  traditions  and  auricular  whispers,  or  else  fancies  he  made 
some  mistake  as  to  the  exact  quantity  of  the.  ingredients,  or 
nicety  of  the  experiment ;  and  thus  repeats  the  operation  with- 
out end.  If,  in  the  meantime,  among  all  the  chances  of  experi- 
ments, he  throws  any  which  appear  either  new  or  useful,  he  feeds 
his  mind  with  these  as  so  many  earnests ;  boasts  and  extols  them 
above  measure ;  and  conceives  great  hopes  of  what  is  behind. 
'  Now  the  marriage  is  consummated  ! '  he  exclaims  ;  the  '  philoso- 
pher's stone  is  found,'  only  to  be  again  deceived.  To-day,  trans- 
ported with  wild  ecstacy  ;  to-morrow,  dejected  by  utter  despair. 
Thus  oscillating,  he  plodded  through  life,  until  kind  death  stepped 
in  to  put  an  end  to  his  weird  fancies."  His  epitaph  was  written 
by  Spenser,  and  none  could  be  more  to  the  point : 

"  To  lose  good  days  that  might  be  better  spent, 
To  waste  long  nights  in  pensive  discontent  ; 
To  spend  to-day,  to  put  back  to-morrow  ; 
To  feed  on  hope,  to  pine  with  fear  and  sorrow  ; 
To  fret  his  soul  with  crosses  and  with  cares, 
To  eat  his  heart  through  comfortless  despairs  : 
Unhappy  wight !  born  to  disastrous  end, 
That  did  his  life  in  tedious  tendance  spend." 

Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  passion  for  making  gold 
still  prevailed  ;  but,  at  the  close  of  the  century  it  lost  ground 
fast,  and  was  swept  away  by  the  new  chemistry,  which  regarded 
the  metals  as  elements.  Concerning  one  of  the  last  true  believers 
in  the  "hermetic  art,"  Peter  Wo ulfe,  Mr.  Brande*  says:  "He 
occupied  chambers  in  Barnard's  inn,  while  residing  in  London, 
and  usually  spent  the  summer  in  Paris.  His  rooms,  which  were 
extensive,  were  so  filled  with  furnaces  and  apparatus,  that  it  was 
difficult  to  reach  his  fireside.  A  friend  told  me  that  he  once  put 
down  his  hat,  and  never  could  find  it  again,  such  was  the  confu- 
sion of  boxes,  packages  and  parcels  that  lay  about  the  chamber. 
His  breakfast  hour  was  four  in  the  morning;  a  few  of  his  select 
friends  were  occasionally  invited  to  this  repast,  to  whom  a  secret 

^Quarterly  Review,  Vol.   XXVI. 


182  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

signal  was  given,  by  which  they  gained  entrance.  He  had  long 
vainly  searched  for  the  elixir,  and  attributed  his  repeated  failures 
to  the  want  of  due  preparation  by  pious  and  charitable  acts.  I 
understand  that  some  of  his  apparatus  is  still  extant,  upon  which 
are  supplications  for  success,  and  for  the  welfare  of  adepts. 
Whenever  he  wished  to  break  an  acquaintance,  or  felt  himself 
offended,  he  resented  the  supposed  injury  by  sending  a  present 
to  the  offender,  and  never  seeing  him  afterward.  These  presents 
were  sometimes  of  a  curious  description,  and  consisted  usually 
of  some  expensive  chemical  product  or  preparation.  He  had  an 
heroic  remedy  for  illness  ;  when  he  felt  himself  seriously  indis- 
posed, he  took  a  place  in  the  Edinburgh  mail,  and,  having  reached 
that  city,  immediately  came  back  in  the  returning  coach  to  Lon- 
don. A  cold  taken  on  one  of  these  expeditions,  terminated  in 
an  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  of  which  he  died  in  1805. 

"  About  the  same  time  another  solitary  adept  starved  in  Lon- 
don. He  was  an  editor  of  an  evening  journal,  and  expected  to 
compound  the  '  alcahest,'  if  he  could  only  keep  his  materials 
digested  in  a  lamp-furnace  for  seven  years.  The  lamp  burnt 
brightly  for  six  years,  eleven  months,  and  some  odd  days,  then 
unluckily  it  went  out.  Why  it  went  out  the  adept  could  never 
guess  ;  but  he  was  certain  that  if  the  flame  would  only  have 
burnt  to  the  end  of  the  septennary  cycle,  his  experiment  must 
have  succeeded." 

The  race  of  alchemists  of  the  type  of  Krohnemann  is  not 
entirely  extinct,  for,  in  1880,  an  American  called  W7ise,  duped  a 
member  of  the  Rohan  family,  and  a  collateral  descendant  of  the 
"necklace  cardinal,"  whom  Cagliostro  so  deceived,  by  pretend- 
ing to  make  gold.  The  first  specimen  made  in  Rohan's  presence 
was  tested  and  proved  pure.  Rohan  was  not  permitted  to  be 
present  at  the  process  of  "projection."  Wise  got  a  considerable 
sum  from  Rohan,  and  then  decamped. 


Alchemy:  Its  Development  and  Decline.  183 


LATER  ALCHEMISTIC  SYMBOLS. 

From  the  primitive  symbolism  of  alchemy  grew  up  the  com- 
plicated system  seen  in  the  following  table,  which  gave  way  in  its 

turn  to  the  chemical  symbolism  of  to-day  : 

-f  Acetum Vinegar. 

4-  ' '       destillatum Distilled  Vinegar. 

A  Aer Air. 

©  Aerugo Greenspar. 

O  Alumen Alum. 

Q-  Ammoniac Ammoniac. 

<5  Antimonium Antimony. 

V  Aqua Water. 

^  AquaTortis Nitric  Acid. 

V?          "     Regis Nitro  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

J;  Arena Sand. 

D  Argentum Silver. 

O-o  Arsenic  Arsenic. 

00  Auripigmentum Orpiment. 

Q  Aurum Gold. 

y  Baryta Barium. 

£j  Bismuthum Bismuth. 

CJ  Borax Borax. 

^  Calcium Calcium. 

•£££  Camphora Camphor. 

(y)  Caput  Mortuum Skull. 

<Jo  Cancer Crab. 

c£fc>  Carbo Charcoal. 

4^  Cineres  Clavellati Potash. 

<-|-i  Cinis Ash. 

y$  Cinnabaris Cinnabar. 

XII®  Crystalli Crystal. 

9  Cuprum,  Venus Copper. 

3  Detur Let  it  be  given. 

%  Detur  Signetur Let  it  be  given  and  writ 

Cf  Dies Day. 

O*  Ferrum Iron. 

B  Herba Herb. 

X  Hora Hour. 


184  History  of  Ancient  Pharmacy. 

A  Ignes Fire. 

^7  Lapis Stone. 

^  Magnesi Magnesia. 

Ex]  Menstruum    Menstruum. 

^  Mercurius Mercury. 

\R  Mistura Mixture. 

(J)  Nitrum Saltpetre. 

£>  Nox Night. 

$)  Oleum  ^Etherum Ethereal  Oil. 

ee  Oxymel Oxymel. 

•<£>  Phosphorus .' Phosphorus. 

J7)  Platinum Platinum. 

^  Plumbum Lead. 

=^  Prsecipitatum Precipitate. 

ff)  Prseparare Prepare  Powders. 

§5  Pulv.  Pulvis Powder. 

tp  Regulus Regulus. 

(f  Retorta Retort. 

O  Sal Salt. 

OXOX  Sal  Ammoniacum Sal  Ammoniac. 

0  Sal  Medium. Middle  Salt. 

QC?  Sal  Tartari Cream  of  Tartar. 

a  Sapo Soap. 

/  Semis Half. 

Spiritus Spirit. 

tyy  Spirit  Vini Alcohol. 

\^  "   Rectificatus Rectified  Alcohol. 

W/  "   Rectificatissumus Double  Rectified  Alcohol. 

7i  Stannum Tin 

Sublimare Sublime. 

$  Sulphur Sulphur. 

<?  Tartarus Tartan 

Terre Earth. 

V    _     Terra  Foliata Leaf  Earth. 

#  Tinctura. Tincture. 

Urina Urine. 

0v  Vitriolum Vitriol. 

XX  Vitrum Glass 

%  Volatile Volatile. 

(J  Zincum  . . 


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